
a™ rt/sz4- 



A BOOK 



ABOUT 



WORDS 



A 



G. F. GEAHAM, 

AUTHOR OF 'ENGLISH, OR THE ART OF COMPOSITION,' 

'ENGLISH SYNONYMES,' 'ENGLISH STYLE,' 

' ENGLISH GRAMMAR PRACTICE,' 

ETC. 






LONDON : 

LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. 

1869. 



.1* 



PKEFACE. 



The increased attention lately paid to our 
Language as a subject of Education, has induced 
the Author to state in the following pages his 
views on English (and other) Words. These 
views are the result of a long professional 
career in tuition, together with the study which 
such a calling naturally involves. 

Notwithstanding the rapid strides made of 
late years in the science of Words, much still 
remains unknown to the general reader ; but 
if the following remarks be accepted as a small 
contribution to a more extended knowledge of 
this interesting subject, the Author will be 
amply compensated for any trouble it may 
have cost him to collect them. 

Kensington : 
May, 1869. 



CONTENTS. 



-+- 



PAGE 
^TRODrCTION ix 

CHAPTER I. 
Origin of Words (Saxon) — Families of Words . 1 

CHAPTER II. 
Latin and French Words . . . . .23 

CHAPTER III. 
Old and New Words 38 

CHAPTER IV. 
Degeneracy of Words 63 

CHAPTER V. 
Play upon Words ....... 79 

CHAPTER VI. 
Concrete and Abstract Words . . . .96 

CHAPTER VII. 
Grand Words 101 



viii CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER VIII. 

PAGK 

The Spelling of Words 107 

CHAPTER IX. 
Flexibility, Variety, Contraction, etc. of Words 122 

CHAPTER X. 
Different Views of the same Idea . . .141 

CHAPTER XI. 
Compound Words ....... 150 

CHAPTER XII. 
The Pronunciation of Words . . . .156 

CHAPTER XIII. 
Slang Words and Americanisms . . . .169 

CHAPTER XIV, 

General Remarks on Words, etc. . . . .185 

CHAPTER XV. 

General Remarks on Words, etc., continued „ . 202 

CHAPTER XVI. 
Miscellaneous Derivations of Words . . .215 



INTRODUCTION. 



What is meant by a Language? It is a collec- 
tion of all the words, phrases, grammatical forms, 
idioms, &c, which are used by one people. It is 
the outward expression of the tendencies, turn of 
mind, and habits of thought of some one nation, 
and the best criterion of their intellect and feel- 
ings. If this explanation be admitted, it will 
naturally follow that the connection between a 
people and their language is so close, that the 
one may be judged of by the other ; and that the 
language is a lasting monument of the nature and 
character of the people. 

Every language, then, has its genius ; forms of 
words, idioms, and turns of expression peculiar 
to itself; by which, independently of other dif- 
ferences, one nation may be distinguished from 



x A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 

another. This condition may be produced by va- 
rious causes ; such as soil, climate, conquest, im- 
migration, &c. Out of the old Roman, or Latin, 
there arose several modern languages of Europe ; 
all known by the generic name — Romance ; viz. 
Italian, French, Provencal, Spanish, and Portu- 
guese. These may be called daughters of ancient 
Latin ; and the natives of all these countries 
down to the seventh century, both spoke and 
wrote that language. But when the Scandina- 
vian and Germanic tribes invaded the West of 
Europe, the Latin was broken up, and was suc- 
ceeded by Italian, French, Spanish, &c. The 
Latin now became gradually more and more cor- 
rupt, and was, at length, in each of these coun- 
tries, wholly remodelled. 

History has been called ' the study of the law 
of change ;' i. e. the process by which human 
affairs are transferred from one condition to an- 
other. The history of a language has naturally 
a close analogy with political history ; the chief 
difference being that the materials of the latter 
are facts, events, and institutions ; whilst the 
former treats of words, forms, and constructions. 
Now, in the same way as a nation never stands 



INTRODUCTION. xi 

still, but is continually undergoing a silent — per- 
haps imperceptible — transformation, so it is with 
its language. This is proved both by experience 
and reason. We need hardly say that the En- 
glish of the present time differ widely from the 
English of the fourteenth century ; and we may 
be quite sure that the language of this country, 
two or three centuries hence, will be very dif- 
ferent from what it is at present. It would be 
impossible for a nation either to improve or decay, 
and for its language at the same time to remain 
stationary. The one being a reflex of the other, 
they must stand or fall together. 

What, then, is this law of change ? On what 
principles is it based ? How are we to study or 
follow out its operations ? These questions are 
exceedingly difficult, if not impossible, to answer 
definitively. But there are circumstances con- 
nected with the formation of certain languages 
which may throw some light on them. It may be 
received as a principle that, when one nation is 
overrun or conquered by another, the effect on 
the language of the conquered depends mainly on 
the condition of that which is brought in by the 
conquerors. If the victors be as superior to the 



xii A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 

vanquished in civilisation and improvement as 
they have proved themselves in physical power, 
they will impose their language on the conquered 
people. If, on the other hand, that of the van- 
quished be the more cultivated, the reverse will 
take place ; the dialect of the conquerors will be 
absorbed into that of the conquered. 

When the Visigoths settled in Spain in the 
fifth century, their dialect made but little impres- 
sion on the language afterwards known as 
Spanish. The Latin element in the Peninsula, 
though at that time falling into decay, was far 
more refined and polished than the barbarous 
dialect then introduced ; and it consequently re- 
mained, with some slight modifications, the lan- 
guage of the country. The same happened when 
the Northmen settled in France in the tenth 
century. It is astonishing how rapidly the lan- 
guage of Hollo and his followers was absorbed 
into French ! This may have been assisted by 
the intermarriage of the conquerors with the 
women of the country ; but it was produced 
chiefly by the different conditions of the two 
languages. 

On the other hand, when the Normans, under 



INTR OB UCTIOR xiii 

William the Conqueror, invaded England in the 
eleventh century, a different effect was produced. 
The Norman French after a time, though not 
immediately, enriched the English language with 
many words, but it did not, in the slightest de- 
gree, either then or afterwards, affect its gram- 
matical forms or idioms. The cause of this was 
that the Saxon language was, at that epoch, 
already fixed, and fit for literary purposes. It 
was, indeed, much further advanced as a literary 
language than the invading Norman-French. It 
therefore resisted this external pressure ; and 
though it afterwards admitted numerous French 
terms, the English language remains to this day 
Saxon, and not French, in its tone, character, and 
grammar. 

The climate of a country, or the temperament 
of a people, may also strongly influence the 
character of the language. Given an indolent 
and luxurious race, and we must expect that 
softness and effeminacy will appear in their 
spoken and written expression. No acute ob- 
server can fail to perceive a close connection 
between the national character of the Italians 
and the softness and beauty of their harmonious 



xiv A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

tongue. Again : the simplicity and somewhat 
homely and rough vigour of the Teutonic race, 
are clearly shadowed forth in the sounds and 
forms of the German language. 

The climate, too, in both cases, may have con- 
tributed towards these results. A hot, enervating 
atmosphere produces languor of mind as well as 
body ; whilst a bracing cold air, though it may 
assist in producing a phlegmatic temperament, at 
the same time infuses vigour, energy, and power 
into those who are subjected to its influence. 

There are also, no doubt, many hidden causes 
of gradual changes in language. These are diffi- 
cult to ascertain ; and some of them escape the 
sagacity of even the most acute observers. Poli- 
tical struggles, foreign wars, domestic habits, 
literary studies, &c, may all contribute to alter 
the character of a people, and so far to affect 
their language. 

But whatever may be these mysterious laws of 
change, they must be left to Nature herself, and 
no one must attempt to interfere with them. 
There are no more miserable failures recorded 
in history than the attempt by rulers to interfere 
with the laws of Nature. We are told (though 



INTRODUCTION. xr 

not on very good authority) that William the 
Conqueror ordered the Saxons to speak Norman- 
French. He might as well have ordered his new 
subjects to walk on their heads — the one was 
quite as easy as the other. But no writer tells us 
with what success this decree was executed. Or- 
dericus Vitalis, indeed, states that William en- 
deavoured to learn Saxon, though he does not say 
how far he succeeded. ISTow it is not very likely 
that he should have studied a language which he 
was, at the same time, bent on exterminating. 
Indeed, there is an air of extreme improbability 
about the whole story. 

In more recent times, it is well known that 
Joseph II., of Germany, issued an edict that all 
his subjects, Slavonic, Magyar, or German, should 
adopt one uniform language — German. But it 
was soon found impossible to execute this decree, 
for the people would as soon have parted with 
their lives as with their language ; the whole 
empire was, therefore, immediately thrown into 
confusion. Many of the provinces broke out into 
open rebellion, and it at length became necessary 
to abandon the project. 

It is then clear that no one has the power, of 



xvi A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

his own will or caprice, to add a single word to a 
language, or to cast one out of it. These changes 
must be left to Nature, and all we can do is to 
watch her operations, to observe and record facts. 
But we may speculate on the origin of words, and 
may sometimes discover the causes of their birth. 
We may also inquire into the circumstances of 
their career, and the laws which regulate their 
forms, changes, meanings, &c. These inquiries 
are particularly comprehensive and interesting, 
because they naturally lead us to some knowledge 
of what words represent, and also because they 
are closely connected with the study of the human 
mind both as regards intellect and passion. 



A BOOK 

ABOUT 

WORDS. 



CHAPTER I. 

ORIGIN OF WORDS — FAMILIES OF WORDS. 

Most Philologists have hitherto held the opinion 
that, in general, no satisfactory account can be 
given of the origin of language. They can trace a 
word from one language to another, and can ac- 
count for its various forms and changes by laws 
now generally understood ; but they confess their 
inability to explain what determined the original 
form of its root. They take that original form 
for granted, as a sort of intuitive truth which 
must be admitted as a necessity. They can ex- 
plain the circumstances of its career ; but of its 
first cause or nature they profess to understand 
little or nothing. 

But though this is the general opinion, ail lin- 
guists admit that in every language certain words, 

B 



2 A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

more especially those that convey ideas of sound, 
are formed on the principle of onomatopoeia ; i.e. 
an attempt to make the pronunciation conform to 
the sound. Such English words as ' hiss,' ' roar,' 
'bang,' 'buzz,' 'crash,' &c, are of this class. 
One can hardly pronounce these words without, 
in some sense, performing the acts which they 
represent. 

One school of linguists have lately expressed a 
belief that all words were formed on this prin- 
ciple. A very curious illustration of this view is 
given in Mr. Wedgwood's ' Origin of Language.' 
Explaining the interjection Hem, he says, it was 
originally an attempt to stop some one. We 
are supposed to be walking behind some person ; 
we wish to stop him, and we exclaim, ' Hem ! ' 
This is given as the primary meaning of the word. 
' The sound is here an echo to the sense.' But 
hem is used in other ways ; either as a noun, or a 
verb ; always, however, retaining its original idea 
of restricting, or keeping back. The hem of a 
garment is what prevents the thread from ravel- 
ling. Again, soldiers are sometimes hemmed in 
by the enemy ; that is, prevented from using their 
free will to go where they choose. This illustra- 
tion is intended to prove that the principle of 
onomatopoeia applies not only to words that re- 
present sound, but, by analogy, to other meanings 



OBWIN OF WOBBS. 3 

derived from that principle. There is sound im- 
plied in the interjection hem ; though in the noun 
and the verb, both derived from that interjection, 
no idea of sound is conveyed. 

This connection between sound and sense is 
certainly a natural principle ; and however scorn- 
fully it may have been ridiculed by some philoso- 
phers, it has undoubtedly produced many very fine 
passages in the poetry of both ancient and modern 
times. 

1. The chorus of frogs in Aristophanes, where 
their croaking is represented by words invented 
for the occasion : 

This is, to say the least of it, very ingenious, and, 
in its way, beautiful, because true. 

2. The same principle seems to apply in the 
7ro\v(p\oi(rl3oLo OaXdaarjQ (poluphloisboio thalasses) 
of Homer, where the first word was probably 
intended to represent the roaring of the wave 
mounting on the sea- shore ; and the second, the 
hissing sound which accompanies a receding, 
billow. 

3. Another example of onomatopoeia, in Virgil's 
.ZEneid, viii. 452, has been often quoted : 

1 Quadrupedante putrem sonitu quatit ungula eampum ;' 

where the succession of dactyls is admirably 

b2 



4 A BOOK ABOUT WOBBS. 

adapted to represent the sound of the hoofs of a 
galloping horse. 

4. Several examples of the same figure may be 

found in Milton. Describing the thronging of the 

fallen angels in Pandemonium : 

Thick swarmed, both oil the ground and in the air, 
Brushed with the hiss of rustling wiii^s. 

5. Also, speaking of the gates of hell : 

. . . . open fly 
Th' infernal doors ; and on their hinges grates 
Harsh thunder . . . 

Here the recurrence of the letter r is well calcu- 
lated to convey the idea of a harsh, creaking, 
grating sound. 

6. A similar effect is produced in Tasso's c Ge- 
rusalemme Liberata.' 

II rauco son della Tartarea tromba. 
This connection between sound and sense may 
very probably exist in many words where we now 
fail to perceive it ; but in the present state of our 
knowledge of the subject, we can hardly pro- 
nounce positively in favour of this view as applied 
to the whole body of a language. The question 
remains, for the present, in abeyance. 

Families of Words (Saxon). 
But setting aside the origin of words, it is not 
difficult to show the affinity which many springing 



FAMILIES OF WORDS (SAXON). § 

from the same root have for each other. There 
are in English, as in other languages, hundreds of 
words which may be said to have a family con- 
nection, and which are traceable to one com- 
mon origin, or root. This connection may be 
found in the Saxon as well as the Romance part of 
our language. Th (soft) may be considered as 
the type of the idea of demonstration. All the 
English pronouns and adverbs beginning with 
these letters have that general meaning, which 
may be seen in ' th^i,' c the,' ' there, 1 ' thence,' 
4 this,' ' Either,' ' those,' ' thus,' and others. Again, 
the initial wh may be considered as the type of an 
interrogative, or relative meaning. This also may 
be seen in many English pronouns and adverbs ; 
as in 'Wiat,' ' when,' 'whence,' ' ivheve,' 'wMther,' 
' who,' ' whom,' 6 whose,' &c. The principle of 
inversion has affected the whole of this class of 
words. They are all of Saxon origin, and were 
spelled in that language hw, and not wh; as in 
'hwast' (what), 'hwaer' (where), ' hwanne ' 
(when), &c. 

Tw. 

The Saxon initial tw corresponds with the Ro- 
mance du. There are many English words having 
this initial, which convey the idea of 'two.' 1. 
The numeral itself, ' two.' 2. l Twain,' a now 



6 A BOOK ABOUT WOEDS. 

obsolete form of ' two.' 3. ' Twin, 9 one of two 
children born at a birth. 4. ' 'Between,' which 
is only another form of 'by twain.' 5. ' Twilight,' 
i.e. between tivo lights — daylight and lamplight. 
6. ' Twice ' is equivalent to ' two ' times. 7. To 
c twist ' is to bend two or more threads together. 
8. To ' twine ' is to interlace, so as to form one 
body out of tivo. And 9. A ' twig ' is so called 
from its being easily twisted. 

It is said that the word ' nose ' originally sig- 
nified a promontory — something prominent — and 
that it is so called from being the prominent 
feature of the face. This view is supported by 
its analogy with naze, a headland, and the Scotch 
ness (as in Inverness), a part of the coast which 
juts forward. It may be observed that the word 
meaning ' nose ' has in most European languages 
the form N-S-. This may be seen in the Greek 
vrjaoc, an island or promontory; the Latin nasus, 
the Italian naso, the German Nase, the French nez, 
and the English nose. Whether this be or be not 
an onomatopoeia one thing is certain, viz. that 
in English the initial sn (ns inverted) in so many 
cases expresses nasal action, that it may be taken. 
as a general type of that meaning. This may be 
found in a multitude of words having that initial, 
all expressing various actions of the nose. It may 
be seen in 'marl,' 'sneer,' 'sneeze,' 'sniff,' 'snore,' 
'snort,' 'snooze,' 'snout,' 'snub,' 'snuff,' &c. 



FAMILIES OF WOBDS (SAXON). 7 

Ber-an — to bear. 
This is the source of our English verb 'to bear.' 
It produces the following: — 1. 'Barrow,' an im- 
plement used for carrying or bearing. 2. 'Berth,' 
a place in which one is borne. 3. ' Bier,' a coffin 
in which a corpse is borne to the grave. 4. 
' Birth,' the bearing of a child. 5. ' Berry,' the 
fruit which a tree bears. 

Bles-an — to blow. 
From this verb we have, 1. 'Blaze,' a strong 
flame blown forth. 2. 'Blast,' a violent blowing, 
or gust of wind. 3. 'Blain,' a boil, or blowing up 
of the flesh. 4. ' Blight,' injury done to corn, 
&c, from being blasted. 5. 'Blister,' a blowing, 
or rising, up of the skin. 6. ' Blossom ' (or 
' bloom '), the blowing forth of the flower. 7. 
'Blush,' a blowing forth of the blood. 8. 'Blus- 
ter,' as the wind when blowing hard. 

Brecc-an — to break. 
1. The English verb 'to break ' is directly from 
the above. 2. 'Bridge,' a building which breaks 
a passage across a river, &c. 3. ' Breach,' that 
part of a wall or fortification broken into by ar- 
tillery. 4. To ' broach ' a cask of ale is to break 
into it. 5. A ' brook ' is a stream of water which 
breaks its way across the country. 



8 A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

Bug-an — to bend. 
1. A 'bay' is a handing in of the line of coast. 
2. In sailors' language, a ' bight ' is the hollow 
part of a bay, or a coil of rope tent round. 3. 
A ' bow ' is so called from its being bent. 4. To 
make a * bow ' is to bend the body. 5. ' Beam ' 
(compare the German ' Baum ') is so named from 
its property of bending. 6. A ' bough ' is the 
part of the tree that easily bends. 7. A c bower ' 
is made of branches bowed or bent down. 8. The 
adjective ' buxom' (compare the German 'biegsam') 
is properly bending or pliable. 9. ' 'Elbow ' is the 
bow of the ell, or that part where the arm bends. 
' Big ' and 6 bag ' are probably from the same 
source ; they both convey the idea of something 
bent round. 

Ceap-dn — to exchange. 
The essence of buying and selling lies in the 
exchange of goods for money, or money for goods. 
Hence come 1. the English word 'chapman' 
(sometimes contracted into chap), which properly 
means a buyer and seller. 2. To ' chaffer ' is to 
bargain about a purchase. 3. ' Cheap,' bearing 
a low price, refers to a similar transaction. 4. 
We have also ' Cheajosi&e ' and 'EastcAeop,' origi- 
nally markets, or places for buying and selling. 
5. Chepstow, Chipping Norton, and other names 



FAMILIES OF V/OBDS {SAXON). 9 

of market-towns in England, are from the same 
root. 6. The wind is said to chop when it changes 
from one point of the compass to another. 

Ceaw-an — to chew. 
1. The older form of ' chew ' was ' chaw,' which 
we still occasionally hear in ' chaw-bacon.' 2. 
The end is the grass chewed by ruminating ani- 
mals. 3. A quid of tobacco is a piece kept in 
the month to be chetued. 

Dael-an — to divide. 
1. To c deal ' is from the above verb. It is 
used in English in a variety of senses, all con- 
taining the idea of dividing into parts. 2. A 
certain sort of wood is called ' deal ' from being 
easily divided, or cut into planks. 3. To c deal ' 
cards is to divide them into packets or parcels. 
4. Tradesmen c deal ' in certain articles when they 
sell them in small, divided quantities. 5. We 
also say 'a great deal,' speaking of a large part 
divided from the mass. [' Some-deal ' was for- 
merly said, but it is now obsolete.] 6. A ' dole ' 
is a small part or share dealt out. (Compare 
the German 'theilen.') 

Dic-ian — to dig. 
From this Saxon verb we have, 1. To c dig.' 2. 



10 A BOOK ABOUT WORBS. 

'Dike,' a mound of earth, 'dug' out. 3. 'Ditch/ 
a line ' dug' 4. ' Dagger/ an instrument used 
for ' digging ;' and 5. ' Dock/ a place ' dug ' out 
on the side of a harbour or bank of a river, 
where ships are repaired. 

Drag -an — to draw. 
This Saxon verb gives the English 'to draw.' 
Prom this we have, 1. ' Dray/ a heavy cart 
drawn along. 2. A ' drain/ a tube to draw off 
water. 3. A ' draft/ an order to draiv out money 
from a bank. 4. A ' draught ' is a quantity of 
liquid drawn into the mouth. 5. To ' drawl ' is 
to drag on the voice heavily. 6. ' Drudge/ and 
7. ' Dredge ' (for oysters, &c.) ; both, which ex- 
press a dragging or drawing. (Compare the 
German 'tragen' and the Latin 'trahere.') 

Dropi-an — to drop. 
From this root comes 1. The verb 'to drop.' 
2. To ' droop,' i.e. to lean downwards. 3. To 
' drip/ or fall continually. 4. To ' dribble,' or 
to fall in small ' drops.' 5. A ' driblet/ or a very 
small drop. 

Eri-an — to till. 
1. To ' ear,' in the sense of ' to plough/ is now 
obsolete in English, though, we have an ' ear/ or 



FAMILIES OF WOBDS (SAXON). 11 

spike, of corn — the result of tilling ; and 3. 
' Earth,' that which is tilled or cultivated. 

Far-an — to journey. 
1. Erom this verb (German ' fahren ') comes 
our yerb to ' fare ; ' literally, to go on, or make a 
journey. 2. The adverbs 'fore,' 'forth,' and 'far' 
convey a similar idea ; viz. that of onward move- 
ment. 3. The ' ford ' of a river is that point 
at which it can be 'fared,' or crossed; and 4. 
To ' ferry ' is the act of faring, or passing across 
a river or lake. 5. ' Erith ' and ' firth ' are formed 
on the same principle ; they are those parts of the 
sea where one can be ferried across. 6. The first 
syllable (fur) in the word ' furlough ' belongs 
to this family. It is leave (lough) granted to 
a soldier to 'fare,' or journey, home for a time. 
All these forms are devices to explain a variety 
of modes of faring, or moving onwards. 

Fed-an — to feed. 
This gives us, 1. To 'feed.' 2. 'Eat,' the result 
of being well 'fed.' 3. 'Eodder,' provision for 
cattle ; and, 4. ' Eood,' that which 'feeds,' or sup- 
plies nourishment. 

Fi-an — to hate. 
Erom this verb we have in English — 1. A ' fiend,' 
one who hates. 2. Hence also comes 'foe,' an 



12 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 

enemy, or one hated. 3. To the same root may 
be traced c fie ! ' an interjection expressing dislike 
or hatred ; 4. and also ' foh ! ' or ' faugh ! ' an ex- 
clamation of disgust. 

Fleaiv-an— to floiv. 
Hence come, 1. ' To flow.' 2. 'Fleet;' a num- 
ber of ships that 'flow J or swim, on the water. 

3. The adjective 'fleet,' quahfying what flows by. 

4. To ' float,' or swim, on the water ; and, 5. 
1 Flood,' a large flow of water, 

Fuli-an — to make dirty. 

From this root come, 1. 'Foul' (putrid, offen- 
sive). 2. To 'defile;' to make 'foul.' 3. The 
noun 'filth,' dirt. 4. The adjective 'filthy;' and 

5. ' Fulsome ; ' fall of filth, nauseous, disgusting. 

G-an — to go. 

1. ' Gan ' is the Saxon verb whence the 
English ' to go ' is derived. 2. This gives us ' gait,' 
i.e. a manner of 'going;' and, 3. 'Gate,' a door 
through which one ' goes.' To these may be added 
4. ' Gang,' a number of people ' going ' toge- 
ther ; and, 5, the nautical term ' gang- way,' i.e. a 
passage 'to go ' through. 6. The verb ' to gad,' 
i.e. to be continually ' going ' from one place to 
another, also probably belongs to this family. 



FAMILIES OF WOBDS (SAXON). 13 

Gloivi-an — to burn. 

The verb ' to low,' in the sense of ' to burn,' 
does not now exist in the language ; but the above 
verb gives us, 1. To ' glow,' i.e. to burn intensely ; 
whence come the forms, 2. 'Gleam;' 3. 'Glim- 
mer ; ' and, 4. ' Glimpse ; ' 5. ' Gloom,' or a state 
into which light ' gleams ; ' and, 6. the word 
1 light,' which is a participial form of the old verb to 
1 low.' In one English word the root ' low ' is still 
retained, viz. ' whitlow, 9 & painful white burning on 
the finger or thumb. 

Graf-an — to dig. 

From this verb we have in English, 1. ' Grave,' 
a pit dug. 2. To ' engrave,' i.e. to scratch or dig 
in. 3. Groove, a line dug in. 4. ' Gravel,' earth 
dug up. 5. To 'grovel,' literally, to dig up earth; 
and, 6. To ' grub,' or scratch into the earth. 

Gyrcl-an — to enclose. 

The English words derived from ' gyrdan,' and 
having a cognate meaning are, 1. To 'gird,' to 
enclose by tying round. 2. Girdle, a small band 
or cincture. 3. ' Girth,' the band which ' girds ' 
the saddle on a horse. 4. ' Garter,' a band tied 
round the leg; and, 5. ' Garden,' a space enclosed, 
for the cultivation of fruit, vegetables, &c. 



14 A BOOK ABOUT WOBBS. 

Lang — long. 
From tlie Anglo- Saxon and German ' lang ' is de- 
rived, 1. our adjective 'long;' from which again 
comes, 2. the abstract noun ' length.' 3. The ad- 
jective, ' lean;' and 4. ' lanky' are also members of 
this family. 5. To ' linger,' i.e. to remain a long 
time in a place. 6. To ' lunge ; ' to make a long 
stroke with a rapier ; and, 7. A ' link,' that which 
makes a chain ' longer? 

Lecj-an — to lay. 
1. Both the English verbs ' lay ' and ' lie ' 
(which is to lay oneself down) come from this 
verb, 2. c Ledge,' a place on which to lay anything ; 
3. i Ledger,' a book which lies on a merchant's 
desk ; and, 4. ' Law,' a rule laid down. 

Lced-an — to lead. 
1. Besides the verb ' to lead,' we have from this 
source : 2, ' Ladder,' an instrument which leads to 
a higher place. 3. Load- star, and loadstone, i.e. 
a leading star or stone. 

(H)lift-an — to lift. 
This is the source of, 1. our verb to ' lift.' 
Also, 2. 'Loft,' i.e. a room < lifted ' high. 3. 
The adverb ' aloft '— ' lifted up.' 4. < Aloof; ' and 
5. The adjective ' lofty.' 



FAMILIES OF WOBDS (SAXON). 15 

Maiv-an — to cut down. 
From the Saxon root ' maw ' comes immediately 
1. Our yerb to 'mow,' — as well as a 'mow' (a 
barley- mow or a bay-mow;) ; i.e. a quantity of 
barley or bay mown and beaped together. From 
this is derived, 2. ' Mead,' i.e. a mowed field ; 
and, 3. Meadow, a large mead. 4. Farmers still 
use tbe word afterma^, wbicb, witb tbem, is a 
second mowing. 5, Tbe now obsolete ' mo ' or 
'moe,' as used in tbe sense of a collected quantity 
or beap by Cbaucer and other writers down to Lord 
Surrey, is said to give us tbe words ' more ' and 
' most ' as tbe comparative and superlative forms 
of ' mo ; ' but this is doubted by many etymolo- 
gists. 

Pocca — a bag. 

There are several English derivatives from this 
root. 1. We find it in the word ' smallpox ' (or 
pocks), where it means little bags or holes left in 
the skin by the action of this disease. 2. We 
once had the word ' poke ' in the sense of ' a bag/ 
as in the phrase ' to buy a pig in a poke.' 3. 
' Pocket ' is a diminutive of poke, i.e. a httle bag. 
4. To ' poach ; ' and 5. ' Pouch ' are variations of 
the same root ; for to ' poach ' is to steal game and 
conceal it in a 'pouch.' 5. A 'peck,' and 6. a 
' pack ' are both generic terms of a similar mean- 



16 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 

ing ; and, 7. ' Puckered ' cheeks are bagged or 
puffed out with the cold. 

Scaf-ian — to push. 

This root is a fertile source of English words ; 
we find it, 1. in our now not very elegant word 
' shove/ that is, to push rudely or roughly. 2. A 
' sheaf ' of corn takes its name from the stalks of 
which it is composed being ' shoved,' or pushed up 
together ; and, 3. the ' shaft ' of a javelin is the 
wooden part which is ' shoved ' into the iron. 
4. A ' shovel ' is a small instrument used to 
' shove,' or push into, coals, etc. ; and, 5. our 
' shoes ' are so called because we ' shove ' our feet 
into them. 6. ' Scuffle ' and ' shuffle ' are only 
modified forms of the verb ' to shove,' and express 
a repetition of that act. According to some ety- 
mologists the word ' sheep ' belongs to this family, 
as being an animal ' shoved ' or pushed along in 
flocks from place to place. Hence, perhaps, the 
name ; but this must be considered a doubtful 
derivation. 

Scyr-an — to cut. 

From this Saxon verb come, 1. To ' shear ' and 
the noun ' shears.' 2. A ' share ' of anything 
means, properly, a part ' cut ' off, or divided from 
the whole substance ; and a ' ploughshare ' is that 



FAMILIES OF WORDS (SAXON). 17 

part of tlie implement which * cuts ' through the 
earth. 3. Common experience tells us that the 
adjective ' sharp ' qualifies what easily cuts or 
divides. 4. A ' shire ' signifies a district cut off or 
divided from the rest of the country ; and ' sheriff ' 
is a contraction of 'shire-reeve,' i.e. the officer of 
the ' shire.' 5. ' Shirt ' and, 6. ' Short ' both be- 
long to the same class ; th_e first is a garment ' cut ' 
off, and the second is a participle from the verb ' to 
shore ' or divide, the noun ' shore ' meaning the 
line which ' divides ' the sea from the land. From 
the same root comes, 7. * Sheer.' Sheer impu- 
dence and sheer nonsense mean impudence and 
nonsense unqualified, i.e. ' divided ' or cut off 
from any modesty and sense. Besides the above, 
we have the same general idea in the expression, 
8. ' Shreds ' and patches, little snippings or ' cut- 
tings.'' 9. Shakspere's ' shard-borne ' beetle 
means the beetle borne on his ■ shards,' or scaly 
wings divided in the middle. 10. To these we 
may add ' potsherd,' a piece broken off or divided 
from a pot. The words 'scar,' 'score,' 'scream,' 
'screech,' 'shrill,' 'shriek,' &c, belong to the 
same class, the leading idea in them all being that 
of cutting or dividing ; and they are all based 
upon the type ' scr ' or £ shr.' 



18 A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

Sitt-an — to sit 
1. This is tlie origin of our word to ' sit ; ' whence 
comes, 2. To ' set.' The latter is the transitive 
from the intransitive, formed by a change of the 
vowel. 3. ' Settle ' is a frequentative of c sit,' and 
expresses a permanent sitting. 4. A ' seat ' is 
from the same root ; it is that on which any one 
' sits ; ' and, 5. A ' saddle ' is a seat on horseback. 

Sleaw — slow. 
1. From the Anglo-Saxon 'Sleaw' comes our 
adjective 'slow.' Hence we have, 2. 'Sloth,' or 
the quality of being slow; 3. 'Sloven' (m.) and 
1 slut ' (f.), which both convey the idea of being 
slow and negligent ; 4. ' Slug,' a slow animal, 
from which comes the verb 'to slug,' to indulge 
in sloth ; and, 7. ' Sluggard,' a lazy indolent man. 

Stig-an — to mount 
This root gives us, 1. ' Stair,' a step to mount 
by; 2. ' Stile' (A.-S. Stigel), agate to be mounted 
or got over ; 3. ' Stirrup ' (or stig-rope), a rope 
by which to mount; and, 4. 'Stye,' i.e. a rising 
pustule on the eyelid. 

Straeg-an — to spread. 
From the A.-S. root 'straeg' we have the 
English words 'straw' and 'strew.' 1. 'Straw' 



FAMILIES OF WOEDS {SAXON). 19 

is the dry stalks of certain plants ' strewn ' or 
scattered about. 2. To ' stray ' means to go 
dispersedly or separately. 3. ' Straggle ' is a fre- 
quentative of the last word. 4. The word ' street ' 
is by some supposed to be connected with this 
root. A ' street ' is a way ' strewn ' or paved with 
stones. 

Taepp-an — to draw drink. 

Hence we have in English, 1. 'To tap,' and, 2 S 
A 'tap,' the instrument by which wine or beer is 
drawn from the cask; 3. 'Tapster,' one who 
draws liquor. 4. To ' tope ' is to ' tip ' off beer or 
spirits. 5. A 'toper' is one who topes, and to 
' tipple ' is to be continually toping. 6. One who 
'tipples ' is likely to be often 'tipsy.' 

Tell-an — to count 

The ordinary meaning of our English verb c to 

tell ' is to recount the particulars of some event or 

occurrence. Hence comes a ' tale,' which signifies 

the recounting of such particulars. The passage 

in Milton's ' L'Allegro '— 

Every shepherd tells his tale 
Under the hawthorn in the dale — 

has been explained as ' every shepherd counts over 

his slieejp.' Shakspere has, ' as thick as tale came 

c2 



W A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 

post with post,' that is, as rapidly as could be 
counted. From the same root comes 'till,' a box 
into which money is counted. Again, when we speak 
of ' tolling ' a bell, a similar meaning is implied, 
viz. the numbering or counting out the strokes ; 
and a ' toll ' is money told or counted into the 
hands of the receiver. Again, accounts are said 
to ' tally ' when, after being reckoned or counted 
up, they amount to the same sum. 

Teog-an — to pull. 
From this verb come, 1. To 'tow,' to pull a 
boat or vessel along; 2. To 'tug,' to full with 
force. 3. The noun c tow ' means flax which 
must be 'tugged,' or pulled, asunder. 4. The 
adjective ' tough,' which qualifies what must be 
pulled hard. 5. ' Team,' a number of horses 
pulling together ; and, 6. ' Tight,' what is ' towed ' 
or pulled together with force. 7. The sailor's 
phrase ' to haul taut,' is ' to pull tight.' 

Wan-ian — to decrease. 
1, "We still say, ' the moon waxes and " wanes," ' 
i.e. apparently increases and decreases in size. 
2. ' Wan,' an adjective which expresses thinness 
or decrease of health. 3. ' Want ' signifies a con- 
dition in which our means are decreased ; and, 
4. To ' wean ' is to gradually accustom any one to 
a 'want.' 



FAMILIES OF WORDS (SAXON). 21 

Weg-an — to move. 
1. From this come the English ' way,' which 
means the space through which one can c move.' 

2. To ' wag ' (the tongue or the head), i.e. to ' move ' 
it rapidly. 3. A waggon (sometimes contracted 
into ' wain ') is a vehicle which 'moves' goods, 
<fec, from one place to another. 4. To ' sway ' is 
the intensive of wag — it is to move strongly ; and, 
5. ' Swagger ' is the frequentative of ' sway.' 

Weri-an — to wear. 
1. This is the origin of our word ' to wear,' 
in its ordinary sense. 2. From this we have 
'weary,' the state of being 'worn ' with fatigue;. 

3. From the same root come ' worse ' and ' worst,' 
which are really the comparative and superlative 
degrees of ' ivear,' i.e. * more worn ' and ' most 
worn.' 4. To ' worry,' i.e. to ' wear out' by im- 
portunity. 

Wit-an — to know. 
From the root ' wit ' in this Saxon verb came, 
in English, 1. The old forms ' wist ' and ' wot,' to- 
gether with, 2. The modern word c wit,' and the 
expression, c to wit ' — all these imply knowledge. 
3. "We have ' wise ' (which at first signified know- 
ing much), with its derivative, 'wisdom.' 5. 
4 Wizard ' and ' witch ' are both from the same 



22 A BOOK ABOUT WOBJDS. 

source, and were terms originally applied to those 
who were supposed to come by their 4 knowledge ' 
by a compact with the powers of darkness. 6. 
The word c wittingly,' i.e. of one's own knowledge ; 
and, 7. A ' witness,' or one who tells ns what he 
' knoivs ' about some fact. 

Wricl-an — to twist 

This is the source of many English words : 1. 
To ' writhe,' or twist the body in pain. 2. 
' Wrath.' When in ' wrath,' one is ' writhed ' or 
tortured by angry passion. 3. ' Wry ' and ' awry, 
i.e. ' twisted ' on one side. 4. To ' wring ' the 
hands is to ' twist ' them convulsively. 5. ' Wrong ' 
properly means ' wrung,' or hoisted out of the 
right path. 6. ' Wrangle ' denotes a continual 
distortion or perversity ; and, 7. To ' wriggle ' is 
the frequentative of ' to wring ; ' it means to twist 
about repeatedly. Beside these, we have, 8. The 
wrist, i.e. the joint which i twists ' or turns easily ; 
and, 9. To ' wrest ' and ' wrestle.' 10. To ' wrench.' 
These are all modes of twisting, 11. To ' wreathe ' 
is to tivist or twine together, and, 13. A ' wrinkle ' 
denotes a distortion of a smooth surface. 



LATIN AND FRENCH WORDS. 23 



CHAPTER II. 



LATIN AND FEENCH WORDS. 



Latin Roots. 

English words which indicate mental actions, feel- 
ings, or general abstractions, come to us from a 
Latin or a French source. These, though not the 
most numerous, comprise a very considerable por- 
tion of the English language. It must be under- 
stood that French is, in the main, composed of 
Latin words ; and we may conveniently divide this 
portion of the English language into three classes: — 
1. Words derived directly from Latin ; 2. Words 
derived indirectly from Latin, through a French 
medium ; and, 3. Middle-age Latin words, i.e. 
those formed from a corrupt Latin by the monks 
of the middle ages. These last appear in French 
in a modified form, and come into English still 
farther altered in their spelling and pronunciation. 
I. In most cases English words of the first class 
are compounds or derivatives. We have not 
adopted the roots themselves, but use them only 



24 A BOOK ABOUT WOBBS. 

in composition, with, some particle or preposition. 
For example : the Latin root ' elude ' is never 
found in English as an independent word, though 
we have ' exclude,' ' include,' ' preclude,' &c. It 
is also to be observed that a Latin verbal root, in 
many cases, produces two forms in English ; one 
containing the root of the verb itself, and the other 
its participial form. Thus, the above example 
will give us 'exclude,' from the Latin verb 'ex- 
cludere,' and also 'exclusion,' 'exclusive,' from its 
participle ' exclusus.' If we take any one of these 
roots, say ' clud ' and ' clus ' (shut), we may find 
it in modern English in a great variety of forms. 
From the participial root (clus) come ' clause ' 
(a part of a sentence shut in) ; ' cloister ' (a 
place shut in) ; ' close ' (to shut to) ; ' closet ' 
(a small place shut up); 'recluse,' one 'shut' 
out from the world, &c, as well as the verbs 
exclude, include, preclude, with their derivatives 
exclusion, inclusion, preclusion ; the adjectives 
'exclusive,' 'inclusive,' 'preclusive,' and the ad- 
verbs 'exclusively,' 'inclusively,' &c. These words 
are not often found in the vocabulary of the un- 
educated classes ; they belong rather to the lan- 
guage of books, or to the set forms of eloquence, 
than to that of daily intercourse. We should say, 
in common parlance, that a boy was shut out of 
the room by his companions ; but we should hardly 
say that he was excluded. In a secondary sense, 



LATIN AND FRENCH WOBDS. 25 

however, such a word would be more properly 
adopted. We should say correctly, ' that such 
considerations were excluded from this view of the 
subject,' where we could not very well use ' shut 
out.' Again, we could not properly say that any 
one was ' included ' in a dungeon ; meaning that 
he was ' shut in.' Words drawn from these Latin 
roots have a very wide application in English, 
but they are confined chiefly to a mental, and are 
seldom used in a physical, sense. Saxon forms 
the basis of our language, and is used in practi- 
cal and domestic matters ; while our spiritual 
conceptions are expressed by French or Latin 
words. 

Another well-known Latin root is 'clde' (from 
csedere, to slay) ; which corresponds in meaning 
with the more familiar Saxon word * kill.' We 
have, not ' cide,' but ' fratricide,' ' matricide,' ' regi- 
cide,' ' suicide,' 'parricide,' 'homicide,' and 'in- 
fanticide.' To these may be added, 'concise,' 
' precise,' ' decision,' ' incision,' &c. All the latter 
are derived from the participle of the same Latin 
verb — ' cgesus.' 

Again : the root ' sume ' (sumpt), from the Latin 
'sumere,'to take, gives us 'assume,' 'consume,' 
'presume,' with their participial derivatives, 'as- 
sumption,' 'consumption,' 'presumption,' sump- 
tuous,' 'presumptuous,' &c. 

The Latin root ' cede ' (cess) appears in English 



26 A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

in two forms of spelling ; one, ' cede,' as ' accede,' 
'concede,' 'recede'; and the other, ' ceed,' as in 
'exceed,' 'proceed,' ' sncceed.' These also have 
their participial derivatives, as fonnd in ' excess,' 
'success,' 'process,' 'accession,' 'succession,' 'pro- 
cession.' It will be seen that in all these cases 
the rule holds good. Cry is a more household, 
domestic word, but 'acclaim,' 'declaim,' 'pro- 
claim ' are used on more important occasions. 

The principle of derivation by the change of an 
internal vowel- sound prevailed in ancient Latin as 
well as in Saxon. Thus, from the Latin verb 
' f&cere ' (to make or do) was formed ' eff^cere ' 
(to effect or bring about), the a in the root being 
changed into an i in the derivative ; and we have 
English words from both these sources : — fact, 
faculty, facility, &c, from ' facere ' ; and defect, 
effect, deficient, efficient, &c, from the other form. 

Some of these Latin roots are extremely prolific. 
For example, the Latin verb ' tenere,' to hold, pro- 
duces a very large number of English words. In 
certain verbs it appears in the form ' fern,' as in to 
abstain, appertain, Main, contain, detain, main- 
tain, obtain, "pertain, retain, and sustain. To these 
may be added the derivatives, continent, -pertinent, 
and imper^ment ; besides which, we have from the 
same source, ' tenant,' ' tenable,' ' tenure,' mainten- 
ance,' and 'sustenance,' &c. 



LATIN AND FRENCH WORDS. 27 

Again : the root ' duce ' (from ' ducere,' to lead) 
gives rise to many English derivatives, First we 
have (through French) the word ' JDukef which 
originally meant the leader of an army. Then 
come the verbs to adduce, conduce, deduce, induce, 
produce, reduce, seduce, traduce, in all which the 
idea of leading is involved. To the same origin 
may be traced ductile, aqueduct, viaduct, conduct, 
and -product, besides deduction, reduction, ab- 
duction, production, &c. — nineteen or twenty words 
from one root ! 

II. A rule has been laid down to enable ns to de- 
termine whether an English word is derived directly 
fromLatin, or filtered from Latin through French : — 
4 If the word comes directly from Latin, the only 
change it will undergo will be in the ending. Thus 
" actio " in Latin will be "action " in English ; "in- 
nocentia " will make "innocence ;" "tormentum," 
"torment," &c. But if the word comes through 
French, it will be more altered in its passage ; it 
will be disturbed, not only in its ending, but also 
internally. Thus "populus " in Latin is "peuple " 
in French, and "people " in English. The Latin 
"thesaurus" gives the French " tresor," and the 
English "treasure." ' This may be accepted as a 
general rule, but it is often impossible to deter- 
mine by the outward form of a word whether we 
derive it directly from its primitive Latin source, 



23 A BOOK ABOUT WOBBS. 

or take it at second hand from the French. In 
most cases of donbt the probability is in favour of 
the French, for there are still many English words 
which were at first spelled, and probably pro- 
nonnced, as in French, and whose orthography, and 
perhaps pronunciation, was afterwards reformed 
and brought back nearer to the Latin type. 'Doubt ' 
and ' debt ' are still pronounced with the b silent ; 
but when first brought into English they were 
both written and pronounced as in French — 
' doute ' and ' dette.' Afterwards, when it became 
known that they were originally derived from the 
Latin verbs ' dubitare ' and ' debere,' the b was 
restored in the spelling, though the French pro- 
nunciation was retained ; and the same took place 
with many other Romance words. 

There are certain classes of English words from 
whose outward form we may conclude that they 
are of Latin (or French) origin. First, when an 
English noun ends in * Hon ' preceded by a vowel, 
we may be pretty sure that it is either directly 
from Latin, or from Latin through French. Such 
words as 'formation,' 'completion,' 'transition,' 
* commotion,' and ' ablution,' are derived either 
directly or indirectly from Latin. We never meet 
with this ending in words of purely Saxon origin. 
The termination of these was in Latin ' tio ; ' in 
French they appear in ' tion ; ' and in English the 



LATIN AND FBENCH WOBDS. 29 

same ending (tion) is adopted. This Latin ending, 
4 tio,' is, however, sometimes found in French in 
the form son, which has thus been introduced into 
certain English words of this class. The Latin 
' ratio ' gave the French ' raison ' and the English 
' reason.' Again, ' traditio ' in Latin became ' tra- 
hison ' in French and ' treason ' in English. But in 
many cases the French ending has not passed into 
English; for the words ' declinaison,' ' conjugai- 
son,' ' oraison,' &c, appear in English as ' declen- 
sion,' 'conjugation,' and or&tion, i.e. in their Latin 
rather than their French forms. 

Another large class of originally Latin words 
appear in English with the ending ' ty.' These 
are all abstract nouns, which in Latin end in Has* 
This final tas is expressed in French by te, and in 
English by ty. Thus the Latin ' societas ' becomes 
in French 'socie/e' and in English ' society.'' 
In the same way, from the Latin ' bonitas ' come 
the French ' bon/e ' and the English ' boun^z/,' &c. 

In many of these cases we find two forms of the 
same word, each with its own meaning. One of 
these tends to the French, and the otlier to the 
Latin, in spelling ; and it may be observed that the 
French has been more disturbed by contraction, 
abbreviation, or inversion than the Latin. For 
example, the two words ' secure ' and i sure ' are 
both originally from the Latin ' securus ; ' but the 



30 A BOOK ABOUT WOBBS. 

former is directly from Latin, whereas the latter is 
from the French contracted form — ' sur.' 

Another pair of these double forms may be 
found in ' hospital ' and ' hotel.' The Latin 
* hospes ' signified either a ' host ' or a guest, i.e. 
the entertainer or the entertained. From ' hospi- 
talis ' came the contracted French form ' hotel,' in 
the sense of a house where guests or travellers are 
entertained, as distinguished from 'hopital,' where 
invalids are taken care of. From the French both 
these words came into English, each retaining its 
original meaning. 

This principle of a divided meaning is also seen 
in ' persecute ' and l pursue,' the latter of which 
was known in English before we became acquainted 
with the former. c Pursue ' is from the French 
4 poursuivre,' and is used in the general sense of 
following after eagerly. i Persecute,' from the 
Latin ' persecutus,' the participle of ' persequi,' is 
distinguished from c pursue ' by the meaning of 
' to follow after with an intent to injure.' 

Two other words of this class are ' superficies ' 
and ' surface.' The former is pure Latin ; and is 
compounded of ' super,' ' upon,' and ' facies,' a face. 
But this word is only used in a scientific or ma- 
thematical sense ; whereas ' surface ' has a more 
general signification, and means whatever we can 
see of the outside of any material substance. 

We find a similar difference of meaning, as well 



LATIN AND FRENCH WORDS. 



31 



as form, between l potion' and ' poison.' Both 
these came originally from the Latin c potare,' t 
drink.' The former is the direct Latin, the latter 
the French form, and both are now English. 
But the second denotes a species of the first ; for 
' poison,' as is well known, is that species of 
' potion ' which destroys life. 

This power of dividing a word into two mean- 
ings is not pecnliar to English ; for many instances 
of it may be found in German, French, and Italian. 
But it is of great advantage. It has the effect of 
providing a large number of terms to express 
shades of thought by slight differences of meaning, 
and it thus materially assists in making language 
a more perfect exponent of human thought. 

The following list exhibits some of these double 
forms : — 



outer 



utter 



morrow 


. morn 


lance 


. launch 


wine 


. . xine 


wind 


. vent (peg) 


wise . . 


. guise 


why . . 


. how 


wagon . 


. wain 


deploy . 


. display 


cattle . 


. chattels 


cross 


. cruise 


milk . . 


. milch 


make . 


. match 


metal . 


. mettle 



nib . 
person 
beacon 
to . 
tone . 
discreet 
sauce 
scatter 
stick 
cap . 
quell 
glass 
grass 
&c. 



neb 
parson 
beckon 
too 
tune 
discrete 
souse 
shatter 
stitch 
cape 
kill 
glaze 
graze 
&c. 



32 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 

III. Tlie third division of this class consists of 
Low Latin, or, as they are sometimes called, 
' monkish Latin ' words. These have their origin in 
classical Latin ; bnt they are all corruptions of that 
language, and were formed at a time when it had 
fallen into decay. To this division belong such 
English words as ' chance,' ' esquire,' ' ewer', 
' forest,' 'justle,' 'manage,' 'noise,' 'noon,' 'pil- 
lage,' ' rear,' &c. In all these we may recognise a 
Latin origin, though the words themselves were 
unknown to the ancient Romans. 

From the Greek verb '/3aXXfu/,' to cast, pro- 
bably came the Italian 'ballo,' the French 'bal,' 
and the English 'ball.' Playing at ball was, in 
the middle ages, often associated with singing and 
dancing. Hence the Romance word ' ballare,' and 
the Old Spanish 'baliar,' which both meant 'to 
sing.' The French ' ballade ' and the English 
' ballad ' may be thus accounted for. Apropos of 
' ball,' it may be here noted that the word 'bull/ 
as in the ' Pope's bull,' is derived from ' bulla,' the 
Latin for ' ball.' It was the custom, in the middle 
ages, after writing any document or letter, to 
affix to it a seal in the form of a ' ball,' so that the 
Pope's 'bull' really means the Pope's 'ball.' 

Our word ' chance ' was in old French ' cheance,' 
from ' cheoir.' These are all from the Latin verb 
' cadere,' to fall (out) or happen. The French 



LATIN AND FRENCH WORDS. 33 

adjective ' mediant ' is derived from the old parti- 
ciple 'mes-cheant,' from 'mes-ehoir,' to fall out 
badly or unluckily. We have not adopted this 
adjective, but our noun * mischance ' may be 
traced to this source. 

A curious case of a modern term derived from 
compound Latin roots may be found in our word 
- squire.' This is made up of the Latin ' scutum, ' 
a shield, and ' fero,' I bear. Hence ' scutifer,' a 
middle-age word, meant a shield-bearer, i.e. one 
who attended on the knight, and carried his 
shield, In old French, ' scutifer ' was softened 
into ' escuyer,' or 'ecuyer;' and it afterwards 
appeared in English as ' esquire,' or ' squire.' 

The old French for 'water' was 'aigue,' from 
the Latin 'aqua.' From this was formed the 
word ' aiguiere,' a water- vessel ; and this is the 
origin of our English word ' ewer,' as in ' cream- 
ewer.' 

Of the same class is the word ' forest.' This 
did not exist in ancient Latin, but sprang up in 
later ages. The monks made the word ' foresta ' 
out of the Latin ' foras,' abroad, or out of doors ; 
the same root which produced the English words 
'foreign,' and 'foreigner,' one who comes from 
abroad. The monkish Latin form was ' foresta,' 
he French ' foret,' and the English ' forest.' 

Under this head may be also placed ' comfort ' 



34 A BOOK ABOUT WOBBS. 

and c courage.' The former of these is well known 
to be peculiarly English, and there is no word in 
any of the continental languages which exactly 
translates it. True, the French are beginning to 
use the word ' comfortable ; ' but it may be fairly 
doubted whether it realises with them the same 
idea as with us. It has evidently a Latin element ; 
and the second syllable is, no doubt, derived from 
the Latin 'fortis,' strong. So that, what ' com- 
forts ' would, in the first instance, probably mean, 
what strengthens, and would especially apply 
to ' creature- comforts ' — food or drink, which 
strengthens the body. Afterwards it would be 
used in a secondary and more extended sense. 

The Italian word ' coraggio ' is derived from 
* core,' as the French ' courage ' comes from 
'cceur;' both these being originally from the 
Latin ' cor,' the heart. From French the word 
' courage ' has passed into English, where the 
spelling is the same, though it is somewhat dif- 
ferently pronounced. But neither ' comfort ' nor 
4 courage ' is found in classical Latin. 

The word ' contrada ' in Italian and Provencal 
came into French in the form ' contree,' and 
into English as ' country.' It is derived from the 
Latin preposition ' contra,' against ; and means, 
properly, the part of the land which lies over- 
against us. But the word is altogether of modern 



LATIN AND FBENCH WOBDS. 35 

manufacture. (Compare the German l Gegeu- 
stand,' where the meaning is precisely the same.) 

The Latin preposition ' juxta ' has given rise to 
several words, both French and English, which 
did not exist in ancient Latin. The French ' joust,' 
a combat in which the antagonists rushed at, 01 
pushed close to, one another, is one of these. Also 
* aj outer,' to add or put one thing close to another. 
From these we have, in English, the adverb ' just,' 
as in the phrase 'just now,' i.e. close to the present 
time; and also the verb 'to adjust,' i.e. to place 
things close to each other. ' To justle,' or 'jostle,' 
is a frequentative verb, formed from the above 
adverb 'just.' 

The word ' danger ' is composed of two Latin 
roots : ' damn-um,' loss, and ' ger-o,' I bear ; 
these produced the Low Latin word ' domige- 
rium.' This was afterwards corrupted and soft- 
ened into the French ' danger,' and in that form 
passed into English. 

Our word ' manage ' is from the Latin ' manus,' 
a hand, through the French 'main.' There was 
a Low Latin word, ' managerium, ' which meant 
occupation or actual possession, in the sense of 
holding in the hand. Thence the word was trans- 
ferred to the furniture requisite for the occupation 
of a house, and, in the shape of the French ' me- 
nage,' to the household of the occupier. The 
d 2 



36 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 

identity of this word with the English c manage ' 
may be seen in the expression 'bon mesnagier,' 
one who understands how to conduct a household 
— a good manager. 

From the Latin ' manere,' to remain, or dwell, 
are derived the French ' maison ' and the corre- 
sponding English ' mansion ; ' and from the same 
source come the English words ' manse/ the cler- 
gyman's dwelling-house, and ' manor,' the lord's 
dwelling-house. 

From 'minutus,' the Latin participle of the 
verb ' minuo,' come the English adjective ' minute ' 
and the noun 'minute.' Properly ' minuto primo ' 
was, in Italian, the first division of the hour ; 
' minuto secondo ' was the second, and ' minuto 
terzo ' the third division; which is, in French, 
' tierce' i.e. the sixtieth part of a second. The 
English word ' mite ' is only a contraction of 
minute — it is a minute insect ; and a ' minuet ' is 
a dance with short steps. 

' Noisome ' and ' annoy ' are derived from the 
Latin 'nocere,' to hurt or injure ; whence it may 
be conjectured also comes ' noise,' as being some- 
thing that annoys, as a stir, wrangle, or brawl. 

The word ' peel ' means the rind of fruit or the 
bark of a stick. This is from the Latin 'pellis,' 
skin, from which comes the French 'peau.' The 
radical sense of this word is, that which is stripped 



LATIN AND FRENCH WORDS. 37 

off, or -pilled. 'Pillage ' is a derivative of 'pill,' 
or c peel.' It means a collection of things stripped 
off, or plundered. 

The English word ' palm ' (of the hand) is from 
the Greek TraKajir^ through the Latin c palnia.' 
A certain tree is called a palm because of its broad 
spreading leaves, which resemble the palm of the 
hand ; and a palmer was formerly a pilgrim car- 
rying a palm-branch in his hand, in sign of his 
expedition to the Holy Land. 



38 A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 



CHAPTER III. 

OLD AND NEW WOEDS. 

One very interesting point in the study of lan- 
guage is the cause of the introduction of new, 
and the falling off of old, words. It is to be 
observed that a new word is generally ushered in. 
with a sort of parade — a nourish of trumpets ; 
many writers make a rush at it, and drag it in, 
whether applicable or not. Its novelty is attrac- 
tive ; and it is often used in a sense which really 
does not belong to it. But it is not every word 
thus introduced that maintains its place : it is 
often found, after all, that it has more sound than 
sense, and is rather ornamental than useful ; and 
then it is sure to fall into neglect, dies away, and 
is heard of no more. On the other hand, in the 
natural course of things, many words which have 
done good service, and for a long period, are at 
length discontinued, and give way to new, and 
sometimes more useful, terms. These slip out of 



OLD AND NEW WOBDS. 39 

tlie language unperceived ; they are no longer 
wanted — no one enquires for them; some new and 
more expressive terms push them out, and they 
are consigned to oblivion. 

It is quite ludicrous to observe how strangely 
uneducated or illiterate people use words which, 
to them, are quite new. They are so fascinated 
with their novelty, or, perhaps, with their sound 
and length, that they apply them in all manner of 
odd and eccentric meanings. Two of these words — 
* promiscuous ' and ' immaterial ' — seem to be great 
favourites with a certain class : an ignorant 
Englishman somehow imagines that the word 
1 immaterial ' conveys a sort of reproach, and he 
insults his fellow-workman by calling him an 
'immaterial,' meaning that he is a fellow of no 
worth or respectability. The word ' promiscuous ' 
is often used by the lower orders in the same loose 
way. A witness in a trial, not long ago, stated 
that 'he met the prisoner "promiscuously" (or, 
as he pronounced it, ' permiskously ') in the 
streets ; ' meaning, by chance, or casually. 

If we trace the history of the English language 
through the various phases of its career, from its 
earliest up to its present condition, we shall 
find that it has been continually growing more 
Romance and less Saxon. It is said that a process 
of decay had set in even before the introduction 



40 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 

of Anglo-Saxon into England — that the langnage 
had already lost some of its inflections ; and it is 
well known that, in process of time, these endings, 
with some few exceptions, wholly disappeared. 
Again, at a later period, many Saxon nouns which 
had formed their plurals in en rejected this form, 
and adopted the Romance (or French) plural- 
ending, s. At one time, the word ' eye ' formed 
its plural ' eyne,' or c eyen ; ' ' tree ' made 'treen ; ' 
' shoe,' ' shoon ; ' and even the Romance word 
' uncle,' ' unclen.' These forms have now all 
departed, and in their place we have ' eyes/ 
' trees,' ' shoes,' &c. 

The mode of forming a plural by a change of 
the internal vowel, which was common in Saxon 
nouns, has now almost vanished from the lan- 
guage. We have some few left ; but not more 
than five or six examples, as ' tooth,' ' goose/ 
'foot,' 'man,' 'woman,' and 'mouse.' We may 
be quite confident that any new nouns brought 
into English will form their plurals by the French, 
and not the German, system. 

Again, verbs of strong conjugation are much 
fewer than formerly. Many verbs now form the 
past tense by adding d or ed to the present which, 
in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, changed the 
internal vowel- sound for that purpose. To ' climb ' 
formerly made ' clomb ' (a form used by Milton 



OLD AND NEW WOBDS. 41 

in the seventeenth century) ; ' quake ' made 
' quoke ; ' ' laugh,' ' lofe ; ' ' reach,' ' raught ; ' and 
many others. All these now adopt the weak form 
of conjugation, and form the past tense by adding 
d or eel to the root of the verb : ' climb- ed,' 
• laugh- ed,' ' reach- ed,' c quak-ec?,' &e. And so it 
will be with all verbs that may be hereafter 
brought into the language ; they will, one and all, 
form the past tense by adding ed. 

But not only have we lost these Saxon charac- 
teristics : whole lists of Saxon words have dis- 
appeared which once did good service in the 
language. This may be easily shown by glancing 
over a few pages of Chaucer or Mandeville, where 
we shall find a multitude of terms which have 
been long disused. For example : — 



clepen . . 


. to call 


sterve . 


. to die 




thorpe . . 


. village 


swappen 


. to strike 




grutchen . 


. to murmur 


foryield 


. to repay 




stound . . 


. moment 


reden . 


. to advise, 


&c. 



Even in Shakspere and Milton we may find 
many words which are now obsolete. All these, 
again, are Saxon ; so that it may be truly said 
that our losses have been Saxon, whilst our 
additions have been all Romance, i.e. Latin or 
Frendh. 

In most cases substitutions have been made ; 
but we shall always find that the disused word 



42 A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

was Saxon, while the one substituted for it is 
French or Latin. Thus, for the Saxon compound 
' monath-seoc ' (month sick) we now have ' lu- 
natic ; ' instead of ' waeter-adl ' (water-illness), we 
have 'drops j.' The old Anglo-Saxon ' eorth- 
gemet' (earth -measure) has given way to the 
Greek ' geometry ; ' and the Saxon ' witena- 
gemot' (meeting of wise men), has been trans- 
formed into the French 'parliament.' 

In all probability it was the influence of the 
Norman conquest that assisted this tendency to 
substitute single terms for compound words. 
The French language not being favourable to 
such formations, after a time pushed out many 
Saxon compounds ; and yet, in point of clearness, 
power, and feeling, the Saxon words were far 
more effective. Their separate parts were signifi- 
cant, and familiar to the commonest understand- 
ing; whereas the new word was, of course, at 
first altogether foreign, and even after a time 
was far from being so impressive as the other. 
For example, the meaning of the Anglo-Saxon 
noun i sige-heacan ' must have been clear to the 
most uneducated mind : ' sige ' is ' victory,' and 
1 beacan ' is ' sign ; ' that is, ' victory- sign.' Now, 
for this was substituted 'trophy,' which, being a 
more uncommon word, does not explain itself as 
the other, and is, therefore, not so vivid or pic- 



OLD AND NEW WOBDS. 43 

turesque. Again, 6 heali-setl ' is translated into 
'throne.' In the former word we have two 
distinct ideas, 'high ' and ' seat,' both familiar to 
the most illiterate peasant ; whereas the word 
'throne,' though now common enough, must at 
first have puzzled the people considerably. 

One very expressive Saxon word, ' ivanTiope' 
has disappeared from the language. This may be 
considered a real loss ; ' wanhope ' expressed that 
condition of the mind in which we have not 
actually lost all hope, but when it is beginning to 
wane, i.e. grow gradually less, and we feel it 
slipping away from us. ' Hope ' and ' despair ' 
are the two opposite ends of the scale, and ' wan- 
hope ' formerly expressed an intermediate state of 
mind. This was a beautiful word, and we have 
now no equivalent for it. 

A host of Saxon derivatives have also vanished 
from the language which were once in common 
use ; and among them may be named those having 
the prefix 'for? We still retain the words 'forbear,' 
'forbid,' 'forget,' 'forgive,' 'forlorn,' and 'for- 
swear ; ' but in the writings of the fifteenth and 
sixteenth centuries we often meet with 'forfend,' 
'fordrive,' ' forsay,' forspend,' ' forwither,' ' for- 
waste,' &c, all of which are now dead and buried. 
One word of this class survives, though in a dif- 
ferent form, viz. the Saxon verb 'fordon.' This 



U A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

verb, tlio-ugh given up, may be still seen in the 
familial* expression * to do for ' 

This tendency towards raising the French at 
the expense of the Saxon portion of English 
may be accounted for by various circumstances of 
our history. First, there can be no doubt that the 
[Norman conquest was mainly instrumental in pro- 
ducing this eifect. This event could not have 
failed to be unfavourable to the prosperity of the 
Saxon. The relation in which the conquerors 
stood to the conquered was of itself sufficient to 
account for it, and though the enmity between the 
two races will explain how the two languages were 
kept so long separated, when the fusion did at 
length take place, the advantage was clearly in 
favour of the governing classes. 

Another cause of this leaning to the French may 
have been the number of French words introduced 
by Chaucer. The English language (if, indeed, it 
then deserved that name) was in the latter part 
of the reign of Edward III. only just beginning to 
be formed. The Saxon element, which ever since 
the Conquest had been crushed, was now lifting 
its head, whilst the French was somewhat dis- 
couraged. But the language was not then fit for 
literary, especially for poetical, purposes ; and, 
therefore, at the very time when it first appeared 
as English, a large influx of French words took 
place. 



OLD AND NEW WORDS. 45 

But tliis result was assisted by other circum- 
stances. The number of Huguenot refugees who 
found shelter in England after the massacre 
of St. Bartholomew added materially to the 
French population of this country, and assisted 
in swelling the French vocabulary of the English 
language. 

In the seventeenth century the marriage of 
Charles I. and Henrietta Maria of France could 
not fail to produce some effect on the language 
and literature of the age, and though this French 
taste received a check during the rule of Crom- 
well, it returned with double force at the Restora- 
tion. The foreign tastes acquired by Charles II. 
in his wanderings on the continent mainly con- 
tributed to this state of things, and on the return 
of the Stewarts, the general tone of the court and 
nobility, as well as the literature of the age, was 
French. 

But this was as nothing when compared with 
the consequences of Louis XIY.'s revocation of the 
Edict of Nantes, in 1685. We are told by Mr. 
Smiles that, in consequence of this cruel and im- 
politic act, as many as 400,000 French emigrants 
found an asylum in this country. It is impossible 
that this could have been without effect on the 
Enghsh language, and although statistics on the 
subject are wanting, we may confidently conclude 



46 A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

tliat this immigration considerably increased the 
French element of the English language. 

There can be little doubt that the style of 
Latinity which Johnson adopted also led to the 
abandonment of many words of Saxon origin. He 
was the most weighty authority in England in all 
things regarding language, style, and literature, 
till the year of his death, 1784 ; and his numerous 
imitators, maintaining his peculiarities of style, 
still further contributed to the same state of 
things. Add to all these influences the general 
leaning of most writers of the present day, and 
we shall not be surprised at the condition of the 
English language. 

When we consider the numerous and continual 
attacks which the Saxon element of English has 
thus sustained, we may be inclined to wonder that 
there should be any of it left — that it should not 
have been utterly crushed and annihilated by 
these raids. But this wonder will be increased 
when we find that it not only exists, but consti- 
tutes to this day by far the larger portion of our 
language. This is surely sufficient to prove the 
innate depth, force, and vigour of that element ; 
and we may fairly conclude that if it has so far 
been able to make head against these innovations, 
it retains an intrinsic power to resist future attacks 
of the same nature. 



OLD AND NEW WOBDS. 47 

In truth, Saxon is not so much an element as 
the very basis and foundation of English. The 
great body of articles, pronouns, numerals, con- 
junctions, prepositions, signs, auxiliaries, &c. — in 
fine, all the framework and joints of the language 
— are drawn from that source. 

There are, however, some French philologists 
who would have it that the majority of words in 
English is much in favour of French. M. Thom- 
merel gives himself great pains to prove this 
conclusion, but apparently on very insufficient 
grounds ; and M. Genin, who has written some 
valuable works on his own language, says, in his 
' Variations du langage Francais,' that the English 
are indebted to the French for more than three 
quarters of their language ! ' Les Anglais,' he 
writes, ' ne sont riches que de nos depouilles ; si 
Ton se mettait a cribler leur langue, et a reprendre 
ce qui nous appartient, il ne leur resterait pas 
meme de quoi se dire : " Bonjour ! comment vous 
portez-vous ? " Leur fameuse formule, How do you 
do ? est volee a la France.' The tone of this 
remark is pretty evident, and he surely here allows 
his patriotism to get the better of his good sense ; 
for he certainly ought to have known that, though 
our language is enriched with many French words, 
the main body of English, since the fourteenth 
century, has been, and is at the present moment, 



48 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 

drawn froip. a Saxon and not a French source. 
In the case of ' How do yon do ?' however, he is 
probably right. He quotes from several ballads of 
the twelfth century the expression ' Comment le 
faites-vous ? ' as then used in the English sense of 
' How do you do ? ' to prove that we have adopted 
— or rather, as he says, stolen — this form from the 
French. It has been suggested that the verb do, 
in this phrase, is derived from the Saxon ' dugan,' 
to prosper or prevail, from which comes the more 
modern ' doughty ; ' as in ' a doughty knight.' Ac- 
cording to this explanation, ' How do you do ? ' 
is equivalent to ' How do you get on, or prosper ? ' 
But Mr. Wedgewood, in his ' Dictionary of English 
Etymology,' rejects this view. He agrees here 
with M. Genin, that it is a close translation of the 
old French ' Comment le faites-vous ? ' And so 
the matter now stands. 

Various circumstances give rise to new words, 
which either remain in or depart from the lan- 
guage as they may be found serviceable or other- 
wise. One modern importation is ' Handbook? 
This appears an unnecessary innovation, more 
especially as we had already a word which 
answered the same purpose, and quite as well, viz. 
' Manual] and which has the additional recom- 
mendation of being a simple, not a compound-, 
word. c Handbook ' is of German origin, and 



OLD AND NEW WOBDS. 49 

probably owes its introduction to that German 
influence which came in with the late Prince 
Consort. Mr. Murray has largely contributed to 
its popularity by his numerous and well-known 
1 handbooks,' and the word will now most probably 
retain its place in the language. 

D' Israeli the elder claims the honour of having 
introduced the word l Fatherland ' into English. 
This is certainly a useful addition to our voca- 
bulary. We had before no word to distinguish 
between the two Latin meanings of ' rus ' and 
l patria\ 'country' baing equivocal in sense, since 
it may mean either the land of our birth, or that 
part of it distinguished from the town. Here the 
French have hitherto had the advantage of us : 
they have ' patrie,' for ' Fatherland ; ' ' pays,' for a 
territorial division; and 'campagne,' in a rural 
sense. 

The exact date of the introduction of the term 
* stand-point ' is not known, but it is among the 
new words of about thirty or forty years' standing ; 
and we may conclude from its form that it is Ger- 
man. This word is, no doubt, an improvement on 
1 point of view,' as being a closer, and therefore 
more convenient, expression. It is now in common 
use, especially with writers on mental philosophy. 

The noun ' antecedent ' has been hitherto used 
exclusively as a term of grammar, but of late years 

E 



50 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 

it lias appeared in a new sense. It is now often 
used, in the plural number, to signify the actions 
and general conduct of some one whose reputation 
we wish to ascertain. We must inquire, they say, 
into his 'antecedents ;' that is, try to find out what 
he has been doing, who were his companions, how 
he has hitherto conducted himself, &c. This is 
certainly a convenient term enough. It expresses 
concisely what would otherwise require a rather 
ponderous circumlocution. Mr. ' Punch/ with his 
usual satirical spirit, said that it would be more 
satisfactory to know something of a suspected 
man's relatives than of his antecedents ! 

We learn from Lord Macaulay that the word 
' gutted ' was first used on the night in which 
James II. fled from London : ' The king's print- 
ing-house .... was, to use a coarse metaphor, 
which then for the first time, came into fashion, 
completely gvMed.' 

The first writer who used the word i anecdote ' was 
Procopius, the Greek historian of the reign of Jus- 
tinian. He wrote a work which he called ' Anec- 
dotes,' or a i Secret History.' The Emperor Justinian 
and his wife, Theodora, are here represented as two 
demons, who had assumed a human form for the 
destruction of mankind. Procopius tells us that 
he wrote this work as a supplement to his ' His- 
tory,' in which he could not ? for fear of torture 



OLD AND NEW WOBBS. 51 

and death, speak of some living persons as they 
deserved. The word ' anecdote ' is compounded 
from the Greek av (an) not, ek (ek) out, and Sora 
(dota) given. It thus means a fact not given ont 
or put forth — an unpublished story. Though this 
was its original meaning, every one, of course, 
knows that we have now whole volumes of pub- 
lished anecdotes. 

The ending ' ation' is, in English, chiefly applied 
to Latin roots ; as in ' consult ation,' 'creation,' 'don- 
ation,' &c. It is said that Mr. Dundas, afterwards 
Lord Melville, was the first to use the word ' starv- 
ation,' which he introduced in one of his speeches in 
the House of Commons, on the American war, 1775. 
Here we had, for the first time, a Saxon root — 
'starve' — with a Latin ending — 'ation ;' a hybrid 
formation. From this circumstance, we are told 
that Mr. Dundas was ever afterwards called by 
his acquaintances, ' Starvation Dundas.' But 
whatever objection may have been made to it, the 
word has now taken a firm hold on the language, 
and is used by the best writers as a perfectly legi- 
timate term. 

The mania of modern times for grand terms 
has produced some very curious words. Trades- 
men, in advertising some new invention or 
article for sale, almost always endeavour to 
attract public attention towards it by giving 
e 2 



52 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 

it an unusually grand name, generally from a 
Greek source, but often a strange combination. 
To take a few cases of these mysterious com- 
pounds : — c RypopJiagon' Soap. This, it may be 
presumed, means dirt-eating, or dirt-consuming, 
soap. But, as all soap cleanses the skin, why 
should this sort be designated as particularly 
cleansing ? Simply to sell the article. Indeed, 
we can hardly walk far in the streets of London 
without seeing some fantastic term of this sort 
paraded in the shop windows. The hair-dresser 
exhibits his ' Auricomous ' Fluid ; and the son of 
Crispin his ' Antigropelos ' Boots. These meet us 
at every turn. One tradesman has lately adver- 
tised a machine which he thinks proper to call a 
1 Dotosthene ;' by which, we may conjecture, he 
means, an instrument for strengthening the 
back. 

Some years ago the writer, walking up Oxford 
Street, became aware of a fellow carrying on his 
back before him a huge placard, on which was in- 
scribed the strange word ' Therapolegeia.' This 
was a decided poser. On rubbing up his Greek, 
however, he at length discovered that this 
curious word might possibly mean, c an office for 
the registry of servants ;' and so it turned out. 
But which of the two parties — the ladies who 
wished to hire the servants, or the servants who 



OLD AND NEW WORDS. 53 

wanted to be hired — best understood the word 
' Therapolegeia ' is a problem still to be solved. 

Tailors — I beg their pardon, Merchant Clo- 
thiers ! — now persist in calling coats and waist- 
coats ' tnnics ' and ' vests ;' and as for 'trousers,' 
the word is considered far too gross for ears 
polite ! And what has become of ladies' bonnets ? 
They are gone — departed — vanished ! but they 
have left their ghosts behind them, in the shape 
of a wretched little bunch of silk and ribbons, 
dignified by the name of ' Head-dress ! ' 

Some of these outlandish compounds are not 
very intelligible. One of them — ' Orthopcedic ' — 
is a term applied to an institution lately esta- 
blished in Oxford Street, for operating on club- 
feet. The name is probably intended to raise the 
establishment in public estimation, but the form 
of the word has justly called forth the cen- 
sure of some critics. If this word, as seems pro- 
bable, is meant to convey the idea of ' straight- 
footed,' the third syllable should be formed from 
the Greek ttovq, tto^oq, a foot, and the whole word 
should stand ' orthopodic, ' and not 'orthopcedic' 

' Stereotype,' a term now commonly known to 
printers, and, indeed, to general readers, was in- 
vented and first used by Didot, the well-known 
French printer. This word will certainly main- 
tain its place in English. 



54 A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

The adjective ' inimical ' is said to owe its origin 
to Mr. Windham, who first introduced it in one of 
his speeches in the House of Commons about 
eighty years ago. It is useful to mark a distinc- 
tion between private and public enmity ; ' inimical • 
having the first, and ' hostile ' the second, mean- 
ing. But the word is not very popular, in spite of 
its four syllables, and does not appear to make its 
way. 

The great French Revolution of 1789, as might 
have been expected, brought forth many new 
words, some of which have been adopted in 
English. One, destined to become a very promi- 
nent feature of the times, was ' Guillotine.' This 
well-known instrument was named after its in- 
ventor, Dr. Guillotin. How or why they made it 
feminine, by adding to it an e y is not clear ; but the 
word now stands 6 La Guillotine,' and has secured 
for itself a permanent place in the French lan- 
guage. 

Other words which were the offspring of those 
dreadful times have disappeared from common use 
and parlance, and are only occasionally referred to 
as memorials of the age which produced them. 
Such are the new names then given to the months ; 
as 'Brumaire,' 'Vendemiaire,' ' Fructidor,' ' Ther- 
midor,' &c. When the fury of the revolutionary 
spirit was at length exhausted, and things were 



OLD AND NEW WOBDS. 55 

brought back to their former condition, these 
words naturally fell into disuse, and at last disap- 
peared. There were, however, others belonging to 
this period which seem to have taken a stronger 
hold on the people's mind, and which form to 
this day part of the legitimate vocabulary of the 
French language. In this class may be named 
6 fusillade ' and ' noyade : ' those horrible whole- 
sale shootings and drownings of the Vendeans 
which formed such a frightful picture of that 
awful period. c Terroriste ' first appeared under 
Hobespierre's administration ; and the assassins of 
the unfortunate prisoners in September 1792 were 
termed ' Septembriseurs.' 

It is natural to suppose that political names 
would be born with the parties which they desig- 
nate. The terms ' Whig ' and ' Tory ' were never 
heard of till the close of the seventeenth century ; 
and it is curious that there is much obscurity con- 
cerning the etymology of both these words. All 
that is positively known on the subject is, that the 
first is of Scotch, and the second of Irish, origin. 
1 Whig ' was first applied to the Scotch cove- 
nanters, and ' Tory ' to the Popish outlaws who 
favoured the cause of King James II. in Ireland. 
It may be remarked, by the way, that these two 
words, though not wholly extinct, are now much less 
frequently heard than formerly. Different circum- 



56 A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

stances of political warfare have introduced new 
terms in both these cases. ' Tories ' became ' Pro- 
tectionists ' during the great debates on the Corn- 
Laws ; and now they call themselves ' Conserva- 
tives.' The Whigs, again, appeared on one occa- 
sion as 'Reformers,' and they are at present known 
as ' Liberals.' 

The name ' Puritan,' as applied to a religious 
sect, still nourishes in English. It was first heard 
of in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and then given 
as a nickname to a party which would have even 
reformed the Reformation. These ' Puritans ' 
affected a superhuman purity of morals, and hence 
their name. They were also sometimes called 
'Precisians,' from their excessive fastidiousness 
about insignificant matters (this latter word has 
now fallen out of use). 

The distinction between ' Roundhead ' and ' Ca- 
valier ' first appeared during the civil war between 
Charles I. and his Parliament. The ' Roundhead,' 
in his sour and sullen spirit, condemned all out- 
ward ornament, and wore his hair cropped close ; 
thus showing the round form of his head ; in con- 
tradistinction to the chivalrous tone, the romantic 
spirit, and the flowing locks of the Cavalier. 

The opprobrious term ' Gueux ' (Beggars) was 
adopted in 1566 by the Dutch revolters against 
the rule of Philip II. Margaret of Parma, then 



OLD AND NEW WOBBS. 57 

governor of the Netherlands, being somewhat dis- 
concerted at the numbers of that party, was re- 
assured by her minister, Barlaimont, who remarked 
to her, that there was nothing to be feared from a 
crowd of 'beggars.' The party of confederates 
accepted this name, and prided themselves on it ; 
and in every language in which the history of the 
revolt of the Netherlands has been written, this 
French term, 'gueux,' is used to designate these 
malcontents. 

Many popular authors, presuming on their own 
authority, have endeavoured to introduce new and 
strange terms into the English language. Cole- 
ridge, in his work ' On Church and State,' makes 
use of the following extraordinary words : — ' In- 
fluencive,' 'extroitive,' 'retroitive,' and 'produc- 
tivity.' Bentley uses : — ' Commentitious,' ' aliene,' 
'negoce,' and 'exseribe.' But no other writers 
adopted these words : a clear proof that ih.ej were 
not wanted. 

Charles Lamb used, in his writings, several 
words which have not succeeded in maintaining 
a place in the language. Among them may be 
named, ' agnise,' ' burgeon,' and ' arride.' 

Again, any subject of temporary excitement 
will generally give birth to some new words. The 
Indian Mutiny gave us Ho loot;' and during the 
American civil war, we made our first acquaintance 



58 A BOOK ABOUT WOBBS. 

with ' seeesh,' ' skedaddle,' and ' stampede.' "Words 
born under such circumstances may be long- or 
short-lived : some maintain a place in the language, 
others have but a brief existence ; they ' fret their 
hour upon the stage,' and then are heard no more. 
We have also many examples of words which 
originated in some question of passing interest, 
and which, though the causes of their first ap- 
pearance have long since passed away, still remain 
in our language, and do us excellent service there. 
The general belief in astrology in the Middle Ages 
left us several words of this class. Though we no 
longer believe that the position of the stars can 
affect our fortunes, we still use the word 'dis- 
aster,' in the sense of a calamity or misfortune. 
From the same source come the adjectives, 
'jovial,' 'mercurial,' 'martial,' and 'saturnine.' 
These express qualities supposed to belong to 
those heathen gods whose names were given to 
the constellation under which any one was born. 
In astrological phraseology a man's fortune is 
still said to be in the ascendant, or to culminate. 
Both these expressions were first used by the. 
astrologers, and referred to certain stars which, 
when they had risen, to their greatest height, were 
believed to portend prosperity. The word ' aspect,' 
though now expressing the general appearance 
of things, was first applied, astrologically, to the 



OLD AND NEW WOBDS. 59 

physical appearance or cratward view of the 
heavens ; and ' lunatic ' was first used in the sense 
of one supposed to be mentally affected "by a 
change of the moon. 

Other superstitions have produced words of a 
like nature. The ancient Roman divination may 
be still traced in our English words c augur,' 
'auspice/ 'omen,' &c. The left hand was always 
regarded by the ancients as portending ill-luck ; 
and hence our modern word c sinister,' which at 
first meant simply ' left-handed,' has now come to 
signify i foreboding evil.' 

1 Its,' the possessive form of the neuter personal 
pronoun, is of comparatively late introduction 
into our language. In Anglo-Saxon, the same 
form served for both the masculine and neuter 
possessive ; thus : — 





m. 


f. 


n. 


Nom. 


He . 


. heo . . 


. hit. 


Gen. 


His. 


. hire . , 


. his. 



At first, the nominative neuter, c it,' was used for 
the possessive neuter, of which many instances 
occur in Shakspere. See ' King John,' act. ii. 
sc. 1 : c Go to it grandame, child.' The same 
may be found in the authorised version of 
the Scriptures (of 1611) ; see Leviticus xxv. 5 : 
' That which groweth of "it" own accord.' But in 
this translation the word ' its ' is not once found. 



60 A BOOK ABOUT WOBJDS. 

Genesis i. 11 : c The tree yielding fruit after his 
kind.' Mark. ix. 50 : ' If the salt have lost his 
saltness,' &c. Milton avoids the use of 'its.' It 
seldom occurs in his prose works, and there are 
not more than three or four instances of it in his 
poems. The precise date and occasion of the 
first introduction of i its ' into the English language 
have not been ascertained, but it was probably- 
early in the seventeenth century. It is said that 
the ' Rowley's Poems ' of Chatterton was detected 
to be a forgery by the presence of the word ' its ' 
several times in the MS. Rowley was represented 
as a monk of the fifteenth century, when the word 
was certainly not in the language. 

New French Words. 
M. Genin, in his chapter on the age of certain 
French words and phrases, mentions the following 
cases : * — 

1. ' Desagrement ' and 'renaissance;' men- 
tioned by Pere Bouhours as new words in 1675, 
two years after the death of Moliere. 

2. ' Insidieux ' and ' securite ; ' established in the 
language by Malherbe. 

3. ' Sagacite ; ' first found in the works of St.- 
Real and Balzac. 

* See G-enin, Variations du Langage frai^ais, p. 312. 



NEW FRENCH WORDS. 61 

4. Tlie sixteenth century "was remarkable for 
an irruption of diminutives, introduced chiefly by 
the influence of Ronsard and his school. Most 

. of these are now lost ; but two of them, viz. 
j historiette ' and c amourette,' are retained. 

5. It was Menage who first used the word 
{ prosateur.' 

6. The negative words ' intolerance,' c inexperi- 
menter,' ' indevot,' ' irreligieux,' and 'impardon- 
nable ' were subjects of much discussion about the 
end of the seventeenth century, and did not take 
root in the language till the eighteenth. 

7. The Abbe St.-Pierre first used the word i bien- 
faisance.' 

8. St.-Evremond discusses the word 'vaste,' re- 
marking that it was then new, and not firmly 
established. 

9. Ronsard first used ' avidite,' and 'ode ;' and 
Baif introduced 'epigramme,' ' aigredoux,' and 
6 elegie.' 

10. In the seventeenth century, the literati of 
the Hotel Hambouillet produced several new 
words : Segrais gave to the French language 
' impardonnable ; ' Desmarets, ' plumeux ; ' and 
Balzac, ' feliciter.' 

The members of the Port-Royal also furnished 
their contingent of new words, which the Jesuits 
of course condemned as ridiculous and detestable. 



62 A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

Among these new terms were l hydrie ' and c am- 
phore.' The first appears in a translation of Eccle- 
siastes xiL 6 : c Antequam conteratur hydria ad 
fontem ' — i Before the pitcher be broken at the 
well.' The second, ' amphore,' was used in a 
translation of Horace's ode, c Ad Amphoram.' 
But i hydrie ' was not destined to live, and has 
become obsolete j l amphore ' is still retained. 



DEGENERACY OF WORDS. 



CHAPTER IV. 



DEGENERACY OF WORDS. 



One point to be observed in the nature and history 
of words is their tendency to contract in form 
and degenerate in meaning. A word which, in 
the beginning of its career, has generally a favour- 
able, or at any rate a not disparaging, meaning, 
becomes, as it grows older, weaker in effect and 
more contracted in form and signification, and, 
in most cases, falls into an unfavourable sense. 
It does not improve or extend, but contracts and 
deteriorates in meaning. Archbishop Trench 
uses this fact as an argument to prove the per- 
versity and evil tendencies of mankind ; and it 
must be admitted to have considerable force. 
Take the two verbs, to c resent ' and to l retaliate.' 
The first of these means, etymologically, ' to feel 
back,' or 'feel in return.' Of course, one may 
feel kindly or unkindly, according to circum- 
stances : but we now never use this word in a 



64 A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

favourable sense. We are never said to ' resent 9 
kindness or affection ; but only injury, slander, 
ill deeds, &c. Again, the derivation of ' retaliate ' 
is from the Latin ' re ' (back) and ' talis ' (such) ; 
and it would naturally signify, ' to give back such' 
(as we have received). But we now retaliate 
offences or indignities, and never favours or 
benefits. These words were, however, once used 
in a much more extended sense. Dr. South, a 
celebrated preacher of Charles II. 's time, in one 
of his sermons has the expression, ' resenting God's 
favours,' which, according to the present restricted 
meaning of the word, would seem to a modern 
reader positively blasphemous. But in the seven- 
teenth century the word ' resent ' implied good 
as well as bad feeling ; gratitude for benefits re- 
ceived as well as anger for injury done. 

This tendency to degenerate will appear, per- 
haps, more evidently if we inquire into the original 
source of certain English words which are now 
used as the strongest terms of reproach in the 
language. Among these may be named, 'thief,' 
'villain,' and 'vagabond.' 

The first is of Saxon origin. c Theoiv ' was a 
term originally applied to one of the servile 
classes of the Anglo-Saxon population, and in its 
first sense implied no reproach. But, as people in 
this position had many temptations to fraud and 



DEGENEBACY OF WORDS. 65 

deceit, tlie word at length came to have its modern 
signification ; i.e. it degenerated into the present 
meaning of ' thief.' 

' Villanus ' was, in Latin, first used in the sense 
of a farm- servant ; but as those in this capacity 
acquired a bad reputation by their immorality and 
brutal violence, the whole class was stigmatised ; 
and thus the word ■ villain' now conveys, as every 
one knows, a very different sense from that of 
farm-servant. 

There is no particular reproach conveyed in the 
etymology of ' vagabond.' It meant at first simply 
a wanderer. But as the habits of a wanderer 
are likely to become unsteady, irregular, and reck- 
less, this term, in course of time, degenerated 
into its present acceptation. It is now always as- 
sociated with the ideas of a loose morality and 
want of sobriety. 

1 Prejudice ' is another of those words which 
have gradually got rid of their favourable mean- 
ing, and are, in most cases, used in a bad sense. 
It is true, we sometimes say ' prejudiced in favour 
of ' some person or thing ; but, without this speci- 
fication, there is always a leaning towards the bad 
sense of the word. And yet the derivation shows 
simply, i a judgment formed before sufficient re- 
flection,' whether favourable or otherwise. 

In the same class may be placed 6 animosity.'' 



66 A BOOK ABOUT WOBBS. 

In Latin, c aniraosus ' meant courageous, full of 
soul, vigour, and ardour. Now, it is wholly con- 
fined to the sense of a violent feeling of anger, 
hatred, and resentment. In fine, it has lost all its 
beauty. There is no longer the least trace of any- 
thing noble in the word ' animosity. ' 

The words ' simple ' and c simplicity ' still retain 
something of their original charm, but it is much 
to be feared that they are more frequently used 
in a contemptuous sense. We speak of a ' simple ' 
fellow, as of one who is easily cheated or duped ; 
one wanting in shrewdness ; anything but ' know- 
ing ; ' which, by the way, is another term which has 
degenerated into an unfavourable acceptation. 

It may seem strange, bat it is certainly true, 
that the word c good,' which is naturally associated 
with everything high, pure, and noble, both in 
morals and intellect, has partaken of this general 
tendency downwards, and is often used in the 
sense of 'able to pay,' or ' having sufficient 
means to discharge ' debts. This use of the word 
is found in the language as far back as Shak- 
spere's time. In the ' Merchant of Venice,' 
Shylock says to Bassanio : — ' Antonio is a good 
man ? ' and when Bassanio asks him ' if he has 
heard any imputation to the contrary,' he replies : — 
' My meaning in saying he is a good man, is 
to have you understand me that he is sufficient.' 



DEGENEEACY OF WOBDS. 67 

This is still the common acceptation of the word 
with city men ; with them, a good man is one who 
has a large balance at his banker's. 

If we look into the original meaning of the 
word ' cunning, 1 we shall find that it was not at 
first used in its present bad sense. This is one of 
a numerous Saxon family, based upon the type 
ShnJ or 'c^;' as 'ken,' 'know,' 'can,' 'king,' 
' cunning,' &c. We find in Psalms cxxxvii. 5 : — 
' If I forget thee, Jerusalem, let my right hand 
forget her " cunning," ' where the word is used for 
skill or art. This meaning is now seldom applied, 
while the word has kept its sense of deceit or 
slyness. 

The same may be said of ' craft? It had at first 
a good as well as a bad sense. It meant ability or 
dexterity, as well as fraud or artifice. ISTow its 
bad meaning is in the ascendant. If the favour- 
able sense is sometimes intended, this is the excep- 
tion, not the rule. 

Indeed, there are many English words which, 
though not taken in a positively unfavourable 
sense, have yet a tendency that way — which 
require qualifying, if we wish them to be under- 
stood favourably. For instance, if we speak of 
any one's 'curiosity ,' meaning that he has an inquir- 
ing spirit, it will be necessary to explain that we 
mean a well-directed, and not a prying, imper- 



68 A BOOK ABOUT WORJDS. 

tinent curiosity ; for, without that explanation, it 
will be certainly understood in the latter sense. 
In fine, when there are two meanings to a word, 
a right and a wrong, the evil is sure to prevail. 

The words c critic ' and ' criticise ' are in pre- 
cisely the same condition. These words do not of 
necessity imply fault-finding. A critic is simply 
a judge ; he may have to praise as well as to 
blame ; but every one knows full well that to 
1 criticise ' is generally looked upon as synonymous 
with 'to censure,' and, unless qualified, is sure to 
be understood in the latter sense. 

In the very copious vocabulary of words which 
have ' fallen from their high estate,' or undergone 
a pernicious transformation, may be also ranged 
the word 'fellow.' In some cases it retains a 
certain respectability, as when we speak of the 
' Fellow of a college.' Shakspere makes Hamlet 
say of Yorick, the jester : — ' He was a " fellow " 
of infinite jest,' where the sense is certainly not 
intended to be disparaging. But now-a-days ' fel- 
low ' is, on the whole, not looked upon very 
favourably. It is suggestive of recklessness and 
disorderly conduct, and, unless qualified, is not a 
very complimentary term. 

As to the word 'knave,' it is irrecoverably lost. 
It is the lowest and most degrading term we can 
apply as a reproach and an insult j and yet it 



DEGENERACY OF 1V0BJDS. 69 

meant originally nothing more than 'boy,' as 
1 Knabe ' does to this day in German. By what pro- 
cess the * boy ' became a ' knave ' may be a specula- 
tion, but the word has obviously lost its former 
good name. 

This perversity of human nature in turning 
words into an opposite and unfavourable meaning 
may also be seen in many familiar and every-day 
forms of speech. It is not uncommon to hear an 
abandoned fellow spoken of as a ' precious ' scoun- 
drel, or some absurdity referred to as l blessed ' 
nonsense. This perversion is not confined to Eng- 
lish. The French often use the word c sacre ' in 
a sense diametrically opposed to i holy,' a meaning 
which existed in Latin, from which French is 
derived. Yirgil's 'auri "sacra" fames' is pro- 
perly translated c accursed lust for gold.' The 
Latin 6 altus ' also conveyed the distinct and 
opposite meanings of ' high ' and ' deep.' 

Also the English word l silly ' has degenerated 
from ' selig,' which in German preserves its mean- 
ing of ' blessed ; ' and ' ninny ' took its origin from 
the Spanish ' nino,' where it means simply ' a child.' 

Another example of a change for the worse may 
be seen in the word ' prevent.' The Church Service 
gives us this word in the literal sense of ' to go 
before, or guide : ' i Prevent us, Lord, in all our 
doings,' &c ; and in the Collect for the 17th Sun- 



70 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 

day after Trinity : — ' We pray Thee that Thy grace 
may always "prevent" and follow us.' But this 
is not the present sense of the word ; it has now 
always the meaning of ' to stop,' rather than to 
guide onwards — the very opposite of its former 
signification. This, like other words, has degene- 
rated. 

Contradictory Meanings. 

Connected with this degeneracy of words is one 
very curious phenomenon, viz. that in English we 
frequently meet with the same word in two dis- 
tinct meanings, directly opposed to each other, 
For example, the verb c to let ' has generally the 
meaning of ' to give leave,' or ' allow.' This is its 
ordinary acceptation, but in the still common legal 
phrase, ' without let or hindrance,' it has the very 
opposite meaning. 1 Again, Hamlet says : — c I'll 
make a ghost of him that 'lets' me/ i.e. him that 
interferes with or hinders me, where the sense is 
again the very reverse of the usual meaning. 

The verb ' to cleave ' is another case of this 
contradiction of meaning. ' To cleave ' may mean 

1 In some cases, this difference of meaning may be ac- 
counted for by a difference of etymology. c To let,' in the 
sense of 'to hinder,' is from the Saxon verb 'letjan;' but 
when it means ' to allow,' it is from the Saxon ' lsetan.' See 
Matzner, Englische GrammatiJc, vol. i. p. 189. 



DEGENERACY OF WORDS, 71 

either c to adhere to closely ' or i to cut asunder.' l 
When we say the tongue ' cleaves ' to the roof of the 
mouth, it is used in the first sense ; but the 
directly opposite meaning is implied when people 
talk of c cleaving ' wood, i.e. cutting it into parts. 

We may use the word ' fast ' in two senses, 
opposed to each other. It conveys the idea either 
of quiet rest or of rapid motion. ' The door was 
fast locked,' means that it was fixed and not to be 
moved ; whereas in the sentence, c He runs fast,' it 
expresses quickness of motion. . 

To this class also belongs c nervous,' which 
means either possessing, or wanting nerve. When 
ladies are said to be ' nervous,' we understand 
that they are weak, timid, easily frightened ; in 
fine, wanting nerve. On the other hand, a ' ner- 
vous ' style is one marked by vigour and energy. 
One use of the word represents the absence, and 
the other the presence, of nerve. 

When Shakspere makes Hamlet say, \ Would I 
had met my dearest foe in heaven,' he means, ' my 
most hated foe.' As extremes are said to meet, so 
does this word express the extremes of love and 
hatred. 

The adjective i fearful ' will also illustrate this 

1 ' To cleave,' meaning ' to adhere to,' is from the Anglo- 
Saxon ' cleofan,' ' clufan ; ' bnt in the sense of ' to split,' it is 
from ' clifan,' ' clifian.' See Matzner, vol. i. p. 202. 



72 A BOOK ABOUT WOBBS. 

principle. It means either l affected by fear ' or 
' inspiring fear.' The word ' mortal ' is in the 
same condition. Its nsual sense is i subject to 
death,' but it is also used subjectively, as ' pro- 
ducing death.' Hence the difference between a 
' mortal wound ' and a ' mortal being.' 

c To look ' may be understood in two opposed 
senses. When we say, l a man holes well into his 
affairs,' the word is used in its active meaning ; but 
if we should say, ' he looks well,' it would mean 
that he appears to others to be in good health. 

The word ' mistaken ' also is equivocal in mean- 
ing. ' I am mistaken ' may mean c I make a 
mistake,' or ' Others mistake me.' This per- 
versity appears in various forms. When we say 
that a tradesman e sells his goods,' the word 
' sells ' is employed in a subjective sense ; but we 
not unfrequently hear that his goods sell well, 
where the same term is used objectively. In these 
cases, the active form is used in a passive sense, 
and not vice versa. c A walking-stick ' does not 
mean a stick that walks, but a stick to be walked 
with. Nor is a ' drinking cup ' one that drinks, 
but one to be drunk out of. 

This difference of subjective and objective 
meaning may be especially observed in that class 
of adjectives which ends in ' able ' or ' ible ;' such 
as, 'porta&Ze,' ' -pliable,' i visz&Ze,' ' legible,' &c. 



DEGENEBACY OF WOBJDS. 73 

Most of these words have a passive or objective 
sense. ' Portable ' means £ tbat which can be car- 
ried? 6 visible/ c that which can be seen.'' But 
some of these convey an active or subjective 
meaning. For example, c comfortable ' does not 
mean 6 what can be comforted ;' but ' that which 
comforts.' A c comfortable ' house or room is one 
which comforts the inmates. ' Terrible,' again, 
does not mean ' capable of receiving terror ;' bat 
able to produce that feeling in others. A c ter- 
rible ' accident is one which inspires terror in the 
beholders. This active or subjective meaning is, 
however, the exception. Most of this class of 
words are used in a passive or recipient sense. 

Another case in which this contrariety of mean- 
ing may be observed is in the use of the prefix c in. 9 
This prefix has, in general, the force of a nega- 
tive ; as may be seen in the words ' mcomplete,' 
■ mcapable,' ' in&elihie,' &c. But there are cer- 
tain adjectives in which it conveys a positive or 
intensive meaning, i.e. the very opposite to the 
negative. When we say that some one's health 
was 'invigorated,' we do not mean that it was 
weakened ; but, on the contrary, that it was very 
much strengthened. Instead of depriving the word 
of any of its meaning, the ' in ' here adds force 
to its positive signification. Some of this class 
are, 'mtense,' 'mfatuated,' 'mveterate,' ' mvalu- 



74 A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

able ; ' but most of them are used in a negative 
sense. 

We occasionally meet with much confusion of 
sense in the application of some English words. 
We commonly say that a man marries a woman, 
and also that a woman marries a man ; in addition 
to which, the clergyman marries them both. Per- 
haps, as the word ' marry ' is derived from the 
French 'mari,' and the Latin c maritus,' a hus- 
band — which is from ' mas, maris,' a male, and 
marks a difference of sex — it would be better to say, 
a man ' marries ' a woman, and a woman ' is mar- 
ried to ' a man ; and the priest joins them in mar- 
riage. The use of the good old Saxon word ' wed' 
would obviate all these difficulties ; but, unfor- 
tunately, it is now much out of fashion, and in- 
deed rapidly disappearing from the language, 
though the noun ' wedding' still holds its place. 

There is a tendency to contract or restrict in 
meaning certain words of our language whose 
etymology would allow of their being used much 
more extensively. This, in many instances, seems 
to be caused by that deteriorating principle before 
mentioned; for, in all these cases, the favourable 
meaning is ignored, and the bad one retained. 
The word l condign ' is never used but with 
6 punishment,' though its meaning might be rea- 
sonably applied to honours, merits, or rewards. 



DEGENERACY OF WORDS. 75 

1 Condign ' rewards would be rewards worthy of 
the receiver's actions. * Condign ' honours would 
mean honours appropriate to certain merits, &c. 

The adjective ' inveterate ' is in precisely the 
same predicament. It is never applied to a good 
feeling, but always to some bad passion. We 
commonly hear of inveterate resentment, malice, 
hatred, animosity, &c. ; but we never meet with 
inveterate love, kindness, affection, or attach- 
ment. And yet why not ? The true meaning of 
' inveterate ' is what has gained strength by age ; 
and it is clear that this quality would apply rea- 
sonably enough to such feelings as love, kindness, 
or affection. An anecdote is told of Lord Byron, 
that in a letter to one of his friends, he subscribed 
himself, 'Yours inveterately, Byeon.' This was, of 
course, done in a playful spirit ; but the word was 
perfectly well applied ; and it is a pity that this 
example had not been generally followed. 

In this class we may place the words ' animad- 
vert ' and ' insinuate/ The first of these signifies 
literally to notice or observe (animum vertere ad), 
to turn the mind to ; but there is always coupled 
with it the idea of censure or punishment. But 
surely we may observe in order to praise as well 
as to blame ! 

Again, 'to insinuate' is generally connected with 
a crooked procedure of the mind. When people 



76 A BOOK ABOUT WOBBS. 

' insinuate, ' the result looked for is rather evil 
than good. It is opposed to a straightforward 
mode of action. 

On the other hand, certain French words have 
been admitted into English in one sense, which 
many writers show a disposition to extend. But 
this should be checked, and these words should be 
confined to their legitimate meaning. For ex- 
ample : the French verb ' demander ' is properly- 
translated into English by ' to ask.' In English, 
' to demand ' should be only used in the sense of 
to ask as a right, in a case where justice must be 
satisfied, and should not be applied to general 
cases. The French say, ' demander pardon,' but 
we English 'beg' — we do not 'demand' — pardon. 

' To assist,' meaning to do a service, is good 
English ; but in the sense of ' to be present,' it is 
French, and not English. We may ■ assist ' a 
man in his work, or by giving him advice, &c, 
but we cannot properly write that some one 
' assisted ' at a supper, if we mean that he was one 
of the guests. 

To l arrive ' is another of the French words 
adopted in English whose sense must not be 
stretched beyond its legitimate bounds. When 
it signifies 'to come to,' it is properly applied; 
but in the sense of ' to happen,' it is not English. 
We may say, ' Our friends are arrived ; ' but 






DEGENERACY OF WORDS. 77 

we must not ask, ' What has arrived ? ' if we 
mean ' What has happened ? ' 

The verb ' to accord ' is constantly used for ' to 
give,' or ' to grant,' probably because it has two 
syllables instead of one. ' To accord with ' is pro- 
perly used in the sense of ' to agree,' or ' to suit,' 
as: — 'This arrangement "accords" with my 
views ;' but to say that 'he "accorded " his friends 
the use of his library,' would be a wrong applica- 
tion of the word. In the phrase, ' according with,' 
the word is a participle ; in ' according to,' it is a 
preposition. 

The mistake made in the word ' allude ' is in 
using it for ' to mention ' or ' to state.' ' To allude ' 
properly means merely to hint at, or suggest ; and 
it should never be used in the other sense. This, 
again, seems to arise from the idea that it is not so 
common a word as the others, and it is therefore 
adopted — as if the object of writing should be to 
confuse and puzzle the reader ! 

Now and then, however, we meet with words 
which retain their first favourable acceptation, and 
have not been degraded to a lower sense. Some 
few, indeed, have been ennobled, i.e. raised from 
a comparatively humble meaning to a higher dig- 
nity. In the first of these classes we may place 
the verb ' to reward ; ' and we are labouring under 
a certain difficulty in consequence of its being con- 



78 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 

fined to the one meaning. We very much want a 
word which would signify a just return for ill 
deeds ; for, though we use the noun ' retribution ' 
for this purpose, the verb c to retribute ' is not in 
common use. The verb c to reward ' is always 
used in a favourable sense. We can hardly say 
that ' a felon was rewarded for his crimes.' We 
speak of the c rewards ' of goodness or virtue, but 
not of the l rewards ' of wickedness or immorality. 
Of those words which have been elevated in 
meaning, we may mention ' angel,' ' martyr,' and 
' Paradise ; ' all three referring to religious matters. 
These are all of Greek origin. ' Angel,' from 
ayyeXoc, was at first merely ' a messenger ; ' but it 
is now used only in a higher sense — ' a messenger 
of God.' We certainly should not think of calling 
an errand-boy ' an angel.' * Martyr,' from fjidprvpog, 
a witness, is now applied only to one who by his 
death bore witness to the truth of Christianity. 
A witness 'who gives evidence in a trial cannot 
now be called a martyr. Again, ' Paradise,' from 
Trapadeiffog, has been raised from the ordinary sense 
of ' garden ' to that of Garden of Eden, or place 
of bliss. Cases of this sort are, however, com- 
paratively rare. 



PLAY UPON WORDS. 79 



CHAPTER Y. 



PLAT UPON WORDS. 



These are, in all languages, certain words which 
may be called equivocal. Such are either those 
which are spelled exactly alike and have different 
meanings, or are spelled differently and yet have 
the same pronunciation. In most of these cases 
the two terms have no necessary connection with 
each other, though it has probably puzzled many 
a reader that the same word should have such 
a variety of meanings so distinctly different 
from each other. This phenomenon may be ac- 
counted for in English by the condition of our 
language, especially its mixed nature. English 
draws words from a multiplicity of sources. It 
frequently happens that several distinctly different 
forms of foreign words fall into one and the same 
form when incorporated into English, each of them 
retaining its original signification. This may ex- 
plain how the word ' light 9 may mean something 



80 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 

that burns bright, and may also have the sense of 
'not heavy.' In the first case, it is derived from 
the Anglo-Saxon verb 'leohtan;' but, as an ad- 
jective, it comes from the Saxon ' liht,' whence also 
is derived the verb 'to light' (or 'to alight'), i.e. 
to come down gently. The verb ' to lighten,' in 
an electrical sense, is connected with the first 
meaning ; but ' to lighten,' meaning to make less 
heavy, is from the second. 

But it sometimes happens that the same root 
will produce two different meanings ; and of this 
the word ' court ' will furnish an example. In the 
Middle Ages, the yard or court attached to every 
castle (so called from the French 6 cour') was used 
for two purposes : 1st, as a place for games or 
amusements ; and, 2nd, where criminals were tried 
and sentenced. This is why a king's palace is still 
called ' a Court.' We say ' the Court of St. James,' 
or ' the Court of the Tuileries,' &c. ; and this is 
also why buildings where law proceedings are 
carried on have the same name ; as in ' the Court 
of Queen's Bench,' 'the Court of Exchequer,' &c. 

The adjective ' fine,' in the sense of handsome or 
beautiful, is from the Saxon 'fein,' where it had 
the same meaning ; but, in the expression 'in fine,' 
it is from the French ' enfin,' and the Latin ' finis,' 
an end or boundary. Again, the noun ' fine,' 
meaning a sum of money paid as a compensation for 



e PLAY UPON WOBDS. 81 

a misdemeanour, is from the same source, i finis ; ' 
for here it means the limit or end to which the law 
confines the magistrate in determining that sum — 
i Not more than forty shillings,' &c. 

Another of this class is the noun ' sack.' In its 
ordinary acceptation it means a large bag, and is 
derived from the Anglo-Saxon ' sacc' and the Latin 
'saceus.' Hence comes the verb. To 'sack' a city 
is to carry off the plunder in a ' bag.' But another 
meaning of this word is found in c sack,' a sort of 
wine. Here it is a corruption of the French ' sec ' 
(originally the Latin ' siccus '), dry. ' Un vin 
sec ' is what we should call ' a dry wine.' 

These double meanings have probably in all 
nations given rise to various perversions and cor* 
ruptions of the language. One of these — viz. pun- 
ning — has been particularly prominent in modern 
times, and has, in some degree, infected the great 
majority of writers. Though the nations of an- 
tiquity seem to have been comparatively free from 
this literary vice, there are not wanting examples 
of it in the ancient classics. There is a collection 
of so-called jokes, or silly sayings of pedants, attri- 
buted to Hierocles, though it is now believed to 
have been the work of another hand. Most of 
these would be now considered intolerably stupid ; 
and the only one among them that has the least 
approach to wit is the story of the father who 
G 



82 A BOOK ABOUT WOEBS. 

writes to his son urging him to study hard, as he 
would have to live by his books. To this the son 
replies, that he had been already living by his 
books for some time, as he had been obliged to 
sell them. In Latin a softened expression for c a 
thief was 'homo trium literarum,' a man of three 
letters (f. u. r.) ; and Disraeli the elder mentions 
in his ' Curiosities of Literature ' two puns attri- 
buted to Cicero. 

But the true source of modem punning must be 
looked for in Italy, where it took rise after the 
revival of learning in the fifteenth century, and 
whence this practice afterwards spread into all 
the languages of Europe. In English, the vice of 
playing on words infected all the writers of the 
Elizabethan period. Puns are sown broadcast in 
Shakspere's plays — even Milton is by no means 
free from them ; and it is hardly necessary to 
state that they form a prominent feature in the 
drama and light literature of the present day. 

Addison defines a pun, in the sixty-first number 
of the ' Spectator,' as 'a conceit arising from the use 
of two words that agree in the sound, but differ in 
the sense.' Now the punster deals in these equi- 
vocal words ; and his whole art consists in using 
them in one sense where we should naturally 
expect another. There are in English several 
classes of equivocal words : — 



PLAY UPON WORDS. 83 

I. Where the same form has several meanings, 
as 1. 'Fair' (beautiful, or light- coloured). 2. 
' Fair ' (just, or equitable). 3. i Fair ' (a market- 
place). 

II. Where two words of different meaning are 
pronounced alike, though spelled differently ; as 
• son ' and ' sun,' t some ' and ' sum,' i sole ' and 
J soul,' ' peer ' and ' pier,' &c. 

III. A third class is of those which are spelled 
differently, and pronounced nearly, though not 
quite, alike; such as 'baron' and 'barren,' 
' season ' and ' seizing,' &c. ; though these more 
frequently produce Malaprops than puns. 

IV. There are also many cases in which a phrase 
or idiom, consisting of two or three words, may be 
used equivocally, and these may be fairly con- 
sidered as puns. 

Of the first class the following are specimens : — 

1. . . . "beauty's purchased by the weight, 
Which therein works a miracle in nature, 
Making them lightest that wear most of it. 

Merchant of Venice, Act iii. sc. 2. 

2. At one light bound high overleaped all bound. 

Paradise Lost, Book iv. 

3. Dean Ramsay tells a story of a Scotch 
minister who, having to preach at some distance 
from home, was caught in a shower of rain. On 
arriving at his kirk, he got a friend to rub down 

G 2 



84 A BOOK ABOUT WOBJDS. 

his clothes, anxiously asking if he thought he was 
dry enough. The latter replied, ' Never fear ; 
you'll be dry enough when you get into the 
pulpit ! ' 

Under the second division may be placed such 
puns as the following : — 

1. Not on thy sole, but on thy soul, harsh Jew, 
Thou makest thy knife keen. 

Merchant of Venice, Act iv. sc. 1. 

2. I should be still 
Peering in maps for ports, and piers, and roads. 

lb., Act i. sc. 1. 

3. A story being told in the presence of Theo- 
dore Hook of an author who invited his publisher 
to dinner, and treated him to a great variety of 
wines — ' Then,' said the wit, ' I suppose he poured 
his wine- cellar into his hook- seller' 

4. They went and told the sexton, 

And the sexton tolled the bell. — Hood. 

5. I find 

The shadow of myself formed in her eye, 
Which, being but the shadow of your son, 
Becomes a sun, and makes your son a shadow. 

King John, Act i. sc. 2. 

To the third class belong such cases as : — 
1. That of the lady who said that her doctor 
had put her on a new regiment, and allowed her 
to drink nothing but water. ' Ah !' replied some 
one present, 'that must have been the cold* 
stream' 



PLAY UPON WORDS. 85 

2. Under this head also come the sayings of 
Mrs. Malaprop in the ' Rivals,' who talks of the 
' contagious ' (for contiguous) countries ; and who 
recommends a nice derangement (arrangement) of 
epitaphs (epithets), &c. 

3. It is a positive vulgarism to confound ' genus' 
(a class, or sort) with ' genius ' (a high intel- 
lectual power). This is exactly what Goldsmith 
meant, when he put into Tony Lumpkin's 
mouth : — 

Good liquor, I'll stoutly maintain, 
Gives genus a better discerning. 

In the fourth class may be placed punning by 
the use of an equivocal phrase. 

1. It was this form of the pun that Sydney 
Smith used when, hearing of a boy who always 
read the word ' patriarchs ' as c partridges,' de- 
clared it was too bad to make game of them in 
that way. 

2. In this class we may also place Douglas 
Jerrold's well-known reply to a friend who told 
him he was afraid he was going to have a brain 
fever. ' Never fear, my friend,' said the wit, 
'tli ere is no foundation for the fact.' 

3. The story related of Sydney Smith, who re- 
commended the bishops laying their heads together 
to make a wooden pavement, may be placed in the 



86 A BOOK ABOUT WOBBS. 

same category, and here the wit is quite as pun- 
gent as in the other eases. 

4. For if the Jew do but cut deep 'enough, 
I'll pay it instantly with all my heart. 

Merchant of Venice. 

The instances of a play on words we meet with 
in Milton are not so much puns, properly so called, 
as what the Italians called conceits (concetti). 
This poet was deeply imbued with the spirit of 
Italian literature ; and this form of it often ap- 
pears in his verses. The following passages are 
examples : — 

1. Highly they raged against the Highest. 

2. Surer to prosper than prosperity could have assured us. 

3. The same form appears occasionally in other 
poets. Cowper in his ' Conversation ' has 

His only pleasure is to he displeased. 

One form of the pun which is just now not 
so frequently used is the following : — 

1. c There's something in that, 9 as the cat said 
when she peeped into the milk-jug. 

2. c I'm transported to see you,' as the convict 
said to the kangaroo. 

3. c You are very pressing,' as the nut said to the 
nutcracker, &c. 

Punning has been generally considered a low 
form of wit ; and some have taken so unfavourable 



PLAY UPON WOBDS. 87 

a view of it as even to declare that ' he who will 
make a pun will pick a pocket.' But all this is 
hardly just ; for it may be easily shown that the 
highest minds have not hesitated to adopt it, and 
that in some writers it is a prominent feature of 
their style. It is true that critics have frequently 
condemned punning as a flaw in Shakspere's 
style and manner ; but it should be remembered 
that it was one form of that Italian tone which 
coloured all the English literature of the Eliza- 
bethan age, and from which no writer of those 
times was wholly free. We surely cannot utterly 
condemn any form of expression adopted by so 
great a master ; and though it may be admitted 
that an immoderate use of puns should not usurp 
the place of the higher and more important quali- 
ties of style, there seems no good reason why they 
should be wholly excluded. 

The late poet Thomas Hood was so remarkable 
for the way in which he used puns, that they 
formed an essential characteristic of his style. 
Though looked upon by the purist as a contemp- 
tible figure in literature, the pun proved in his 
hands a source of genuine humour, and some- 
times of deepest pathos. It is a received axiom, 
that a keen perception of the ridiculous is a con- 
clusive proof of real genius ; and this opinion 
certainly holds good in his case. In him it was 



88 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 

perfectly compatible with, the deepest sympathy 
and intensity of feeling. In every form of wit 
the effect consists chiefly in the novelty of the 
application presented by the figure. This always 
produces surprise — a naturally pleasing sensation, 
especially when caused by a ludicrous or grotesque 
image. But, in some instances, a pun suggests a 
far higher tone of thought than the mere ludi- 
crous : it may be connected with or produce very 
sober reflections, or even occasionally lead the 
mind to a deeply philosophical speculation : — 

. . . ridentem dicere verum 
Quid vetat? 

In the popular conundrum which has been at- 
tributed to Burke, ' What is (m)ajest(y), when de- 
prived of its externals, but a jest ? ' this effect may 
be observed, as well as in many of Hood's puns. 

In the literary history of all nations, we find 
languages affected by various peculiarities. Of 
these several, more or less connected with punning, 
have, at different periods, prevailed in English, 
viz. Alliteration, Rhyme, Euphuism, &c. Allite- 
ration was the principle on which the Anglo-Saxon 
poets founded their versification. This has been 
called ' head-rhyme,' as distinguished from end- 
rhyme, which is a more modern practice. The lines 
were arranged in couplets grouped, not according 
to the sense, but to the alliteration, which required 



PLAY UPON WORDS. 89 

that two accented syllables in the first, and one in 
the second line, should begin with the same letter 
when a consonant ; and a different, if possible, 
when a vowel. These three initial letters were 
called i rhyming letters,' the one in the second 
line being the chief letter, according to which the 
two in the first line of the couplet must be regu- 
lated. These two, though they come first, are 
therefore called ' sub-letters.' In a couplet, there 
should not be more than three accented syllables 
beginning with this letter ; and the chief letter 
must begin the first accented syllable or word of 
the second line. 

Finally: in very short verse, especially when 
the rhyming letters are double, such as sc, st, siv, 
&c, there need be but one suh-letter. This is the 
general doctrine of alliteration, invariably adopted 
in Saxon poetry. 

The following specimen of alliteration, extracted 
from Rash's Anglo-Saxon Grammar, may serve to 
illustrate this explanation : — 

In Caines cynne . . .In Cain's kin 

pone cwealm gewrgec . . The murder avenged 

J&eDrihten . . . The Eternal Lord ; 

paes pe he ^4bel slog . . Because he slew Abel. 

Ke ge/eah he psere/aehde . He got no joy from his hatred 

Ac he hine /eor forwraec . But he (the Creator) drove him 

ilfetod for py wane . . For that misdeed 

itfancynne fram . . . Far from the human race. 



90 A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

But though no longer considered as an essential 
element in English verse, alliteration was often 
employed by all our poets from Chaucer to 
Spenser, though not according to the strict rules 
above laid down. Spenser used it, in some cases, 
with much effect, as shown in the following lines 
from the ' Faery Queen ' : — 

In wilderness and wasteful deserts strayed. 
Through woods and wasteness wild him daily sought. 
.From her /air head her/illet she undight. 
And with the sight amazed, /orgot his /urious /orce. 

There is more alliteration in our modern poets 
than most readers suspect ; and though an im- 
moderate use of this figure makes it degenerate 
into a mere fantastic puerility, many examples 
may be quoted where it adds a wonderful force to 
the expression. For example, in the following 
lines from Macbeth : — 

That shall, to all our days and nights to come, 
Give solely sovereign sway and masterdom. 

The grandeur of the effect is here powerfully 
assisted by the repetition of the letter s. 

But the fondness of certain rhymesters for this 
figure was cleverly caricatured by the brothers 
Horace and James Smith, in their well-known 
' Ejected Addresses ': — 

Lo ! from Zemnos limping Zamefy, 
iags the lowlj Zord of Fire ! 



PLAY UPON WORDS. 91 

Rhyme may be almost considered a modern in- 
vention ; it is seldom met with in Greek or Latin, 
and was unknown to the Saxon poets. This repe- 
tition of the same sound at the ends of verses was 
introduced into England by the Anglo-Norman 
ballad-writers at, or soon after, the Conquest. 
Since that time it has been regarded as one of the 
greatest embellishments of poetical expression, 
and it is now used in almost every form of poetry 
except blank verse. There is no doubt that it 
deserves this reputation, though here, as in other 
decorations, much of the effect depends on the 
judgment and taste with which it is applied. 
Many a beautiful thought has been probably sacri- 
ficed to the rigid requirements of rhyme ; at the 
same time many so-called rhymes are so unlike 
each other in sound as scarcely to deserve the 
name. 

The effect of rhyme is materially heightened 
when there is a real or fancied connection in 
meaning between the rhyming words ; such as 
1 wine ' and ' divine,' ' life ' and ' strife,' ' fish ' and 
'dish,' 'lone ' and 'moan,' &c. It is also curious 
to observe how often familiar proverbs are formed 
upon this principle. We have ' Birds of a feather 
flock together ; ' c 'Twixt cup and lip there 's many 
a slip ;' ' East bind, fast find ; ' ' No pains, no gains ;' 
&c. And this is not confined to English proverbs. 



92 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 

In the same way the Italians have, ' Chi va ipiano, 
va sano, e va lont<mo ;' and the Germans, ' Mor- 
genstund hat Gold im Mund ;' ' Ueber NacM ist 
wohl gedacht ; ' ' Wer neidet, der leidetj &c. The 
object in these cases was, probably, to prodnce a 
pleasing effect, and, at the same time, to assist the 
learner's memory. 

Another proof of the popularity of rhyme may 
be found in many double terms which are evi- 
dently formed on that principle. These, though 
not often met with in the higher styles of com- 
position, are legitimate words in every- day and 
familiar conversation, and have every right to be 
so considered. Such are ' helter-skelter,' ' namby- 
pamby,' ' hoity-toity,' ' roly-poly,' 'harum-scarum,' 
' willy-nilly,' ' nolens- volens,' ' hugger-mugger,' 
and a host of others. 

A particularly ludicrous effect is frequently 
presented by double rhymes, which properly 
belong to the comic or burlesque in verse. Here 
there is often as much wit and humour in the 
rhyme as in the sentiment ; and here, also, the 
rhyme frequently approaches to the nature of 
a pun. 

Butler was distinguished for his double rhymes, 
and in his c Hudibras ' he displays a positive 
genius for comic rhyme, some specimens of which 
follow : — 



PLAY UPON WOBDS. 93 

As if religion were intended 

For nothing else than to be mended. 

Madam, I do, as is my duty, 
Honour the shadow of your shoe tie. 

An ignis fatuus that bewitches, 

And leads men into pools and ditches. 

He was, in logic, a great critic, 
Profoundly skilled in analytic. 

Besides, he was a shrewd philosopher, 
And had read every text and gloss over. 

Compound for sins they are inclined to, 
By damning those they have no mind to. 

Another form of comic verse is where the 
rhyme is made by dividing the w ord, being formed 
by a similar sound in the middle syllables ; as for 
example ' — 

Thou wast the daughter of my Tu- 
tor, Law professor in the U- 
niversity of Grottingen. — Canning. 

At first I caught hold of the wing, 
And kept away ; but ]\Ir. Tliing- 
umbob, the prompter man, 
G-ave with his hand my chaise a shove, 
And said, ' Go on, my pretty love, 
Speak to 'em, little Xan.' — Smith. 

John Lyly, a dramatist and poet of the Eliza- 
bethan period, is said to have originated a sino-ular 
affectation of language known as ' Euphuism.' 
He was the author of a romance entitled 
' Euphues ; ' in which the ; pure and reformed 



94 A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

English,' as he called it, first appeared. It 
became the fashion with the beauties of the court 
to ' parley Euphuism,' which was soon considered 
a necessary accomplishment for every one who 
had any pretensions to fashion or good taste. 
Euphuism was made up of almost every sort of 
folly of language combined, a mincing prettiness, 
alliteration, punning, pedantry, elaborate non- 
sense, and far-fetched expression; in fine, of almost 
every conceivable form of puerility. This was a 
mere passing absurdity, and the only remains of it 
still left in the language are said to be certain new 
modes of pronunciation then first introduced. 

Language has been, like most other things, sub- 
ject to many and various abuses. Anagrams, 
chronograms, acrostics, &c, have, each and all, 
8 fretted their hour upon the stage, and now are 
heard no more.' But the pun seems likely to 
maintain its place, both in conversation and in 
written composition. Let us not be misunderstood. 
It is not the practice, but the abuse of it, that is to 
be condemned. We are strongly of opinion that 
there can be no greater pest to society than the 
inveterate and professional punster — a man who 
sets traps for you, who lies in wait for every 
phrase you utter, to twist and turn it into a mean- 
ing of his own, and who is continually stopping 
the natural flow of discourse, and bringing it to 



PLAY UPON WOBDS. 95 

some ' lame and impotent conclusion.' But, as we 
have endeavoured to show, the pun, when c telling ' 
and well- applied, is as legitimate a form of wit as 
any other, and quite as conducive to good feeling 
and good fellowship. 



96 A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 



CHAPTER VI. 

CONCRETE AND ABSTRACT WORDS. 

In the order of nature, names would be first given 
to concrete objects and their qualities, and to 
visible acts, i.e. to those things and acts which are 
made known to us through the senses. But what- 
ever may have been the principle which deter- 
mined the original form of these words, it is well 
known that, in all languages, the same vocabulary 
was afterwards used in a mental or secondary 
sense. No new words were invented for the ex- 
pression of thought or feeling, but all the acts of 
the mind and soul were represented by terms ori- 
ginally applied in a concrete sense. In a word, the 
abstract was derived from the concrete. The origi- 
nal concrete sense of the verb ' to see ' was, to take 
in knowledge through the eye, but the same word 
was afterwards used abstractly. ' I see ' may sig- 
nify ' I have the proper use of my eyes ;' and may 
also mean, c I understand or perceive with my 



CONCRETE AND ABSTRACT WORDS. 97 

mind.' A blind man cannot see in the first cf 
these senses, though he may in the second. To 
hear, to taste, to touch, &c, have all these double 
meanings. There may be some words not found 
in a secondary sense ; but, on the other hand, a 
very large number have lost their original physical 
signification. 

In English, most of the words which express 
operations of the mind are drawn from a Latin, 
French, or Greek source. These were all origin- 
ally used in a concrete sense, which in English is 
now lost. 

Horace, in his well-known ninth Satire, has : — 

Occur r it quidam notus mihi nomine tantimi. 

'Occurrit' cannot be here translated by 'occurred.' 
The word, in English, has lost its concrete, and 
retains only its abstract, meaning. With us, ideas 
or thoughts may ' occur ' to the mind, but we 
cannot properly speak of a friend 6 occurring' (i.e. 
meeting) us in the street. 

One essential difference between ancient and 
modern languages consists in the relation between 
abstract, or mental, and concrete expression. The 
languages of antiquity possessed a much nearer 
relation to the original, primary sense of words. 
In them, all the abstract had a much closer affinity 
with the concrete terms from which they were 
H 



98 A BOOK ABOUT WOBBS. 

derived. Tlie Latin word ' spiritus' had not only its 
abstract meaning of ' cheerfulness, ' or c courage/ 
but also its concrete sense of ' breath ;' whereas, 
in modern languages the word has only an abstract 
sense, and it is only by a knowledge of its etymo- 
logy that we can get at its material origin. The 
result of this loss is most complete when a modern, 
formed upon an ancient language, is no longer 
in direct communication with the roots of the 
words used. In this respect ancient languages 
possessed a charm for which nothing can compen- 
sate, and, when in the hands of a great poet, they 
produced most wonderful effects. But the condi- 
tion of modern languages is, in this respect, very 
different. Here, most of the abstract words, 
being deprived of their original concrete meaning, 
are, to the general reader, mere conventional 
signs, wholly unable to produce that vividly pic- 
turesque effect found in the ancient tongues. And 
herein chiefly lies the value of a knowledge of de- 
rivation. For, although a word may now have 
lost its original meaning, it is of the greatest im- 
portance that its primary signification should be 
known, in order to arrive at a clear knowledge of 
its exact and accurate modern application. We 
commonly speak of a man ' applying ' himself to 
his work. To the general reader this conveys the 
idea of giving his mind or attention to what he 



CONCBETE AND ABSTRACT WOBDS. 99 

is about ; but to those who are ignorant of the 
etymology of the word ' applying,' the picture of 
the man bending his body to his task is wholly lost. 
And not only as regards the true meaning of the 
single word, but as concerns the difference in sig- 
nification between terms apparently synonymous, 
this knowledge will be of the greatest importance. 
The difference in meaning between 'to instil' and 
' to inculcate ' is to be understood only by a know- 
ledge of their etymology. To the ordinary reader 
both these words have the general meaning of ' to 
teach,' or instruct; but it is only he who knows 
the meaning of their roots who will understand 
that nice difference in the mode of teaching which 
they respectively describe. The process of ' drop- 
ping in ' knowledge by degrees, conveyed by the 
former word, paints a very different picture from 
the ' stamping in ' of the latter. 

Some of our poets occasionally use abstract, 
especially Latin words, in a primary meaning, 
which they, properly, no longer possess. We may 
look upon this practice as a licence which may be 
conceded to poets ; but we should never adopt it 
in common conversation, or in ordinary writing. 
Milton is especially addicted to this practice. 
When he speaks of Heaven's afflicting thunder,' 
he uses the word ' afflicting ' in its original pri- 
mary sense of striking down bodily. The reprobate 

H 2 



100 A BOOK ABOUT WOBBS. 

angels are thus represented as being hurled 
down from heaven. But this is not the present 
use of the verb 'to afflict.' It means to prostrate 
as to mind or feeling, and is never used in a 
concrete sense. If one man should meet another 
in anger and knock him down, we should not call 
that afflicting him ; and yet this is the sense in 
which the word is employed in the passage re- 
ferred to. In the same poet we meet with 'horrent' 
(for bristling) arms ; ' savage ' (for woody) hill ; 
and ' amiable ' (for lovely) fruit, &c. Thomson, 
in his poem of ' Winter,' has, in like manner, 
' With dangling ice all horrid ' — the last word, in 
the sense of rough or bristling. Modern usage 
does not sanction this application of such words in 
ordinary discourse or writing. 



GRAND WORDS. 101 



CHAPTER VII. 

GRAND WORDS. 

The almost universal mania for violent excitement 
and craving after novelty, which is so marked a 
feature of modern society, is, perhaps, in no in- 
stance more offensively obtrusive than in the style 
of most of our present periodical writers. It seems 
impossible for them to call things by their proper 
names. They reject all simple words, and are con- 
tinually soaring above their subject into the regions 
of the sublime and magnificent. As long as a word 
is out-of-the-way, unusual, or far-fetched, it is 
apparently of little or no consequence to them 
whether it be applicable to the case or not. The 
commonest and most familiar objects are thus raised 
to a dignity quite out of keeping with their real 
nature ; and here, if anywhere, is verified the saying 
that 'from the sublime to the ridiculous there is but 
one step.' Everything is sacrificed to a false glare 
and glitter of language, and sense is always made 



102 A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

subservient to sound. Those beautiful English 
words ' boys ' and ' girls ' are almost banished from 
our modern vocabulary. ' Boys ' and ' girls ' are 
transformed into 'juveniles;' ' workmen' have be- 
come 'operatives; ' and 'people ' in general are now 
' individuals.' These ' individuals,' be it observed, 
are never ' dressed,' but always ' attired ' or 
1 arrayed ; ' they are never ' angry,' but often 
'irate ; ' they never ' go into a shop,' though they 
sometimes condescend to ' enter an emporium,' or 
perhaps a ' depot ; ' and when they return home, they 
never ' take off their things,' but ' divest themselves 
of their habiliments.' Another practice with these 
writers is to substitute for single terms milk-and- 
water definitions of them. With them, a ' fire ' 
is always ' the devouring element ; ' a ' man ' is 
' an individual of the masculine gender ; ' a ' foot- 
man ' is a ' superb menial ; ' and a ' schoolmaster ' 
is the ' principal of a collegiate institution.' 

This style originated in the penny-a-line sys- 
tem. It abounds in our second and third-rate 
magazines, and, with some few honourable excep- 
tions, has infected all the periodical and light lite- 
rature of the day. The word ' individual ' has the 
merit of possessing five syllables ; whereas ' man,' 
or ' person,' has but one or two, and for this reason 
alone is rejected for the other word. But if Dean 
Swift's definition of a good style — ' Proper words 



GBAND WOBDS. 103 

in their proper places ' — is to have any weight as 
an authority, it is certainly here not carried into 
practice. These high-flown terms are very well in 
their proper places, but they are not adapted to 
the cases to which they are applied, and therefore 
they are neither proper words nor in their proper 
places. The worst of this practice is, that it de- 
prives all the sound sterling part of the English 
language of its peculiar force and significance. 
"Words that are seldom used will at length inevi- 
tably disappear, and thus, if not checked in time, 
this extravagance of expression will do an irre- 
parable injury to the English language. 

Another habit of these periodical writers is to 
sacrifice the idiom of the language to their love 
for some particular word. Two verbs, of which 
they seem especially fond, are, ' to commence ' and 
'to essay.' These are French words, and are 
always preferred before their corresponding Saxon 
synonyms, 'to begin' and 'to try.' But in their 
liking for them, these writers are often betrayed 
into an incorrect phraseology. To ' begin ' may be 
followed by an infinitive or a gerund. We may 
say, ' he began to read,' or ' he began reading.' 
Xot so may the verbs 'to commence ' and 'to essay ' 
be used. These do not, correctly, take an infinitive 
as an object. We cannot say, properly, ' he com- 
menced to read, 9 or ' he essayed to do well. 9 In such 



104 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 

cases we must use ' begin ' and 'try.' But the 
latter are not sufficiently elevated to suit the views 
of the penny-a-liners, and are therefore rejected. 

Another of these grand words is ' intoxicated.' 
In the newspapers, for once that we read of a man 
being drunk, we find at least nine or ten times 
that he is intoxicated. The word ' drunk ' is un- 
fortunately too often required in our police reports ; 
but the reporters are either too squeamish, or too 
much inclined to the long word, to hesitate in their 
choice. c Intoxicated ' has five syllables ; ' drunk ' 
has but one : so that the odds in favour of the 
former are literally as five to one. But even then 
they are not satisfied : they add to it ' ivitli drink J 
thus putting two more syllables to the phrase. 
"We generally read that ' the prisoner was in- 
toxicated with drink.' This form of expression 
must occupy at least a line of the printed matter, 
and is therefore worth to the writer — exactly one 
penny ! 

The use of the verb ' replace,' as frequently 
seen in the writings of the periodical press, is open 
to objection. When anyone (we will suppose) 
quits his office, they write that he was ' replaced ' 
by another, meaning that some one else filled his 
place. But the verb c to replace ' has not, correctly, 
this meaning. It signifies 'to put back in its place.' 
If I take a book from the library shelf, and, after 



GRAND WOBDS. 105 

reading it, put it back again, I replace it ; but I 
cannot properly say that one man ' replaced ' another 
in bis office, if I mean tbat be took bis place. 
There seems to be here a confusion between the 
two French verbs, ' remplacer ' and ' replacer.' 
The first means ' to put in the place of another/ 
i.e. to furnish a substitute ; and the second is, 'to 
put back in its own place.' 

Another common fault is the use of the word 
'abstractedly' for 'abstractly.' A man speaks 
' abstractedly' when his mind is drawn away from 
the subject before him ; here, his manner is ab- 
stracted. But a man speaks ' abstractly ' when he 
treats of the ideal and not the real — the abstract, 
and not the concrete. Here his subject is abstract. 
Again: 'to choose,' or 'to decide,' is much too 
common a term to suit the taste of these modern 
article-writers. According to them, people never 
' choose : ' they always elect. We continually read, 
for example, that some one ' elected ' to go abroad, 
rather than that he decided or determined on 
taking that step. 

Three words of suspicious length and somewhat 
mysterious meaning have been lately added to our 
vocabulary, viz. ' rehabilitate,' ' solidarity,' and 
' desirability.' These seem to be great favourites, 
especially with news-writers. They talk of the 
'desirability' of ' rehabilitating' our relations with a 



106 A BOOK ABOUT WOBBS. 

certain continental State, in order to effect a 
* solidarity ' between the two nations ! 

One phase of this leaning to the grandiose style 
is an affectation of foreign words and phrases. 
The extent to which this practice is carried by 
some writers is extraordinary. They can scarcely 
call anything by its proper English name, but 
must apply to it some Italian or French word. 
Such writers describe people as ' biases,' or per- 
haps as having ' un air distingue ; ' and these people 
are said to do everything 'a merveille 9 Some few 
Italian phrases are also occasionally introduced, 
such as Hn jpetto, 9 the ' dolce far niente, 9 &c. ; and 
the style of many writers learned in the ancient 
classics is in like manner infected with Greek and 
Latin words and idioms. 






THE SPELLING OF WOBBS. 107 



CHAPTER VIII. 

THE SPELLING OF WORDS. 

Since, before the invention of printing, there 
was no standard of English spelling, our ortho- 
graphy can have no history before that epoch. 
The variety of forms in which words appeared was 
endless ; for not only did different writers spell 
them differently, but one writer would often pre- 
sent his readers with several forms of the same 
word even in the same page. During the whole 
of our early history, then, the language can hardly 
be said to have had any fixed laws of spelling. 

The orthography of Anglo-Saxon itself seems to 
have been very unsettled. Few words appeared 
invariably in the same form, and some had as 
many as three or four different modes of spelling. 
We find ' ac ' and ' sec ' (oak) ; ' lang ' and ' long ' 
(long); 'gear and c gef (give); 'seolf,' 'self,' 
and c sylf ' (self) ; ' sweaster ' and * swuster ' (sis- 
ter) ; 'heauwod' and 'heafod' (head), &c. &c. 



108 A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

The accent also made a difference in both the 
pronunciation and meaning of some words. Thus, 
' is ' meant ice, but ' is ' (without the accent) was 
the 3rd singular present of the verb ' to be.' ' God,' 
in Anglo-Saxon, was, in spelling and meaning, our 
word i God ;' but ' god ' (pronounced ' goad') was 
our adjective l good,' &c. 

The marked difference in form between the 
Saxon and the early English was the substitution 
of e for the Saxon endings a, e, and u. Thus, 
'nam<x,' ' ende,' and 'wudw' appeared in early- 
English as nanift, ende, and woode (probably pro- 
nounced as two syllables). At a still later period 
there was a tendency to get rid not only of this e, 
but of the whole system of Anglo-Saxon inflec- 
tions ; and the nouns, adjectives, and verbs were 
stripped of nearly all their endings. 

The only two inflections of the noun which 
survived this decay, and which may be traced to 
the present time, were the es of the possessive (or 
genitive) singular, and the as of the subjective (or 
nominative) plural. The Saxon for ' of a smith ' 
was 4 smides,' and the nominative plural of the 
same word was 'smidas.' Wiclif often uses 'is ' 
as a plural ending, as iu i houses,' ' bareh's,' &c. 
Caxton writes ' thynges, ' and More, tythes, ar- 
rows, &c. £Tow the usual ending is s ; as in 
' boots,' trees, &c. 



THE SPELLING OF WORDS. 109 

All the inflections of the adjectives also fell off ; 
and instead of ' go&ne ' (ace. sing.), ' go&es ' (gen. 
sing.), ' godwra,' 'godre' (dat. pi.) these endings 
disappeared, and the word was reduced in all 
its cases and genders, and in both numbers, to 
1 god ' (good), as we now have it. 

The verb lost its gerund, or rather the latter 
was confounded with the participle in ing ; so that 
4 writtane ' (for the purpose of writing) was used 
indiscriminately with ' writende ' (writing*) ; and 
many other terminations, though they did not 
wholly disappear, were weakened by the substitu- 
tion of e for a, or en for an, as ' bsernew ' for 
* bserncm.' Afterwards the participle ending was 
changed from ende to and, thence to inge, and at 
at last to ing, as we now have it. Thus : — t wri- 
tende,' ' writand,' ' writinge,' ' writing.' 

Between the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries 
there was a constant and increasing tendency to 
throw off the final e. Chaucer, Wiclif, and other 
writers of the fourteenth century, have numbers of 
words written with that ending, where it is now 
omitted, as ' childe,' ' herte,' 'fynde,' &c. But, in 
taking away this final, it became necessary, in some 
cases, to make another change in the spelling, in 
order to prevent a mispronunciation. The earlier 
form ' mete,' being deprived of its final e, would 
leave ' met. 9 Therefore, to preserve the long sound, 



110 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 

the e medial was doubled, and the word stood 
c meet.' The same principle operated in transform- 
ing ' cloke' into ' cloak,' ' yere' into * year,' ' scole' 
into ' school,' ' grete ' into ' great,' &c. The e 
final being taken away, it was necessary, in order 
to preserve the pronunciation, to lengthen the 
internal vowel. 

The art of printing exercised a very powerful 
influence over English orthography. The first 
printers assumed at once an absolute power, not 
only in the matter of spelling and punctuation, 
but even in cases of expression and grammatical 
forms. The result was far from favourable to 
uniformity ; for, as every printer had his own 
views on the subject, each consequently differed 
from the others, and this entailed endless confu- 
sion. The author's punctuation and spelling were 
then always sacrificed to the printer's convenience. 
If the writer used any words of doubtful or unset- 
tled orthography, of which there was then a very 
large number, the printer assumed it as his right 
to add to, or take from them as many letters as 
he thought proper, to suit the length of the line. 
Many blunders also arose from the ignorance of 
the copyists. The various manuscripts of one 
poem sometimes differ so widely from each other, 
that modern scholars have supposed these varieties 
to have been the result of the author's own revi- 



THE SPELLING OF WORDS. Ill 

sion. But the more probable cause of these 
differences is that the manuscript was copied by 
a number of different hands, and that consequently 
each differed from the other according to the views 
of such matters which each copyist had adopted. 

We may safely conclude that in orthography, as 
in other matters, changes will take place. The 
phonographers say that, as the whole object of 
writing is to represent on paper the sounds of the 
human voice, every word should be spelled exactly 
as it is pronounced. But there are grave objec- 
tions to this view. First, pronunciation itself is 
in a state of transition — as the present differs from 
the past, so will the future differ from the present 
— and therefore the spelling would have to be 
changed as often as the words were differently 
pronounced. Secondly, there are so many, and 
such delicate shades of sound in the human voice, 
that, to carry out this design properly, it would be 
necessary to invent innumerable characters to 
represent them. The remedy, then, would be 
worse than the disease, for the multitude of new 
and strange characters which this system would 
require would be far more puzzling to a learner 
than any of the existing difficulties. 

On the other hand, the conservative party main- 
tain that the proposed changes in spelling should 
not be admitted because they would obscure, if 



112 A BOOK ABOUT WOBBS. 

not destroy, the derivation of words. This argu- 
ment has certainly considerable force. In the 
study of English, a knowledge of derivation is 
quite as important as correctness of spelling. 
Surely the one should not be wholly sacrificed to 
the other. Are we to lose the essence of the word 
for the mere sake of its outward appearance ? It 
would certainly be a great gain to simplify our 
forms of spelling ; but if, in so doing, we destroyed 
the etymology of the language, would our gain or 
our loss be the greater ? The present forms of 
spelling are, in many cases, a key to the derivation 
of the word. How did the b get into • dou&t ' and 
'de&t,' or the g into 'feign' and l impugn?' 
These letters are left in the words expressly to 
show us their origin. When first introduced into 
English, - debt ' and ' doubt ' were both written 
and pronounced as in French (' dette ' and ' doute '). 
But when it afterwards became known that they 
were originally derived from the Latin verbs ' de&e- 
re' and 'duMtare,' the b was restored in the spelling. 
Some argue that the influence of derivation on 
spelling is only partial, and that other and more 
powerful causes are operating changes in the 
forms of words. It is readily admitted that the 
language will, in time, yield to this pressure. But 
we must not precipitate matters ; and there is 
something to be said on the other side of the 



THE SPELLING OF WORDS. 113 

question. The study of English, has lately received 
a great impulse, and increased attention has been 
paid to its nature and origin. It is surely some- 
what inconsistent to recommend this increased 
energy of study, and, at the same time, to throw 
obstacles in the student's way ! It is remarkable 
how long it takes to work a change of this sort. 
The writer can remember the controversy about 
the substitution of the final or for our for more 
than forty years back ; and yet in that time very 
little progress has been made in the proposed 
reform. But there are obviously certain tenden- 
cies in the English language towards a new or- 
thography, and we may point out with tolerable 
certainty what changes will be eventually effected. 
The law of contraction is in constant operation 
in the spelling of words. It is this principle that 
has caused us to reject the final h in words of two 
or more syllables. K final is now confined chiefly 
to monosyllables. We retain it in ' back,' ' peck,' 
/stick,' 'rock,' 'duck,' &c. Formerly 'music,' 
* critic,' ' traffic,' &c. retained the k ; now it has 
disappeared from these words. But it is evi- 
dently very loth to go ; for it still holds its 
place in ' attach,' c ransack,' 'bulloc/s;,' 'hillock,' 
&c, as well as in compound words, as ' shipwreck,' 
' weathercock,' 6 wedlock,' &c. It is possible that, 
at some future time, we shall be writing 'bac,' 
I 



Ill A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

' pec,' ' stic/ ' roc,' and ' lue ; ' but for the present 
we must, in these eases, add the Jc. 

The same contracting tendency affects the forms 
of certain past tenses of verbs. We write c sent ' 
for ' sended/ 'built' for 'builded/ &c. Some 
would extend this contraction to all verbs ending 
in close consonants, as p, clc, /, or s. They would 
have us write ' slapt/ ' drest/ ' hisst/ * hopt/ and 
' snufft.' There is, no doubt, a leaning this way 
in the language. The verbs ' creep/ ' feel/ c sleep/ 
&c. make, in the past tense, ' crept/ ' felt/ ' slept/ 
&c. But it will be some time before such forms 
as quafft, peept, pickt, hopt, and supt are generally 
adopted. 

This contracting principle also originated the 
tendency to omit the u in the termination our. 
Most of the words which have this ending come to 
us from Latin through French, where the ending 
is eur, as seen in 'honnewr/ ' vigue^r/ 'yaleur, 1 
&c. American writers leave out the u in all these 
cases. They write 'endeavor/ 'neighbor/ beha- 
vior, &c. There is, no doubt, a tendency to omit 
the u in such words It may be observed that 
most of the words which have lost this u are 
names of agents, as ' actor/ ' author,' ' creator/ 
' doctor,' ' governor,' ' orator/ ' sailor,' ' tailor,' and 
' warrior ; ' whereas comparatively few abstract 
nouns have rejected it, though it no longer 



THE SPELLING OF WORDS. 115 

appears in 'erro?*,' 'horror,' 'stupor/ 'terror,' and 
' torpor.' 

Another pair of endings — ise and ize — has given 
rise to a divided practice in spelling. The leaning 
here is decidedly towards ise. The words tem- 
porise, advertise, authorise, &c. were all formerly 
written with a z. Strictly speaking, ize should be 
used in those verbs of this class which can be traced 
directly to a Greek source, as ' baptize,' ' idoKze,' 
' agonize ; ' especially those used in a scientific sense, 
as catechize, symbolize, epitomize, &c. But many 
such words come to us through a French medium, 
as 'criticise,' 'realise,' 'civilise.' These should be 
spelled ise. In all probability, we shall some day 
reject the z altogether. The letter s seems to be 
taking its place in these and many other cases, as 
in ' artisan,' ' partisan,' &c. The late Dr. Donald- 
son was of opinion that all the above verbs should 
be spelled ise. 

By the same law of contraction it is proposed to 
give up the diphthongs ae and oe, found in many 
English words derived from Greek and Latin, and 
to spell them all with a simple e. Many of this 
class have already adopted the change, for we now 
write '.E/gypt,' 'economy,' 'federal,' 'enigma,' 
'phenomenon,' 'penal,' &c. But it is reasonable 
to expect that many of them will retain the diph- 
thong for some time. Proper names and scientific 
i 2 



116 A BOOK ABOUT WOBBS. 

terms are likely to keep it longer, whilst in more 
familiar words it will, probably, give place to the 
single vowel. Accordingly we may predict that 
the diphthong will remain in ' ^2£sop,' GMipus,' 
'^Z?tna,' ' G?ta,' and * Caesar,' as well as in * ar- 
chaeology,' ' anapaest/ 'aesthetic,' cyclopaedia,' and 
' homceopathy ; ' while from such words as ' eco- 
nomy,' 'pretor,' 'primeval,' ' eqnal,' ' edile,' 'edi- 
fice,' &c, if not already gone, it will soon disappear 
altogether. There is here an economical tendency 
in favonr of the single e, and the longer these 
words remain in the language, the more likely 
are they to be spelled with the single vowel. 

In many English words there has been a sort 
of rivalry between the letters y and i, and the 
general tendency now is in favour of i. This does 
not seem to be a question of contraction. It is 
supposed to have arisen from a dislike of the 
printers to the ugly appearance of y in the middle 
of a word. Mandeville writes 'h/til' (little), 
' wyse ' (wise), ' to/mes ' (times) ; and Wiclif has 
' with?/nne ' (within), ' receive ' (receive), ' wryte ' 
(write), ' fa^/le ' (fail), ' everlast?/ne ' (everlasting), 
&c. In certain Greek words, however, the y still 
holds its place, as in 'h?/mn,' ' %pe,' ' h^/dra,' 
' tyrant,' ' lyre, 9 &c. These will probably long 
remain in the spelling. 

One innovation proposed by the phonographers 



THE SPELLING OF WOBDS. 117 

was to substitute a Jc for the ending que. All 
our words of this class are from the French, 
where the ending is invariably que. Many of 
these have already conformed to the English 
tendency, and are written with a 7c final, as ' masfr,' 
' casZ;,' ' brisA;,' * ris&,' &c. These are monosyllables. 
Bat we hesitate to extend this practice to words of 
two or three syllables. We are not prepared to 
adopt such forms as ' pictures^,' * grotes7i;,' ' bur- 
ies/*;,' &c. Nor is it likely that we shall be easily 
reconciled to ' opa&e,' 'anti&e,' 'ohlOce,' &c. In 
some few cases, if only to mark a difference of 
meaning, it is expedient to have two forms of 
spelling; for instance, between hark (of a tree) 
and barque (a vessel), check (a restraint) and 
cheque (on a banker) , pilce (a weapon) and pique 
(a petty quarrel), marh (a note or sign) and 
marque (a reprisal) as in ' letters of marque.' 

We ought not to conclude, because changes of 
spelling have been adopted in certain words, that 
similar changes should be applied to all the words 
of that class — because, for instance, the old forms 
'advaunce,' ' commaund,' ' chaunt,' and others 
now appear as 'advance,' 'command,' 'chant,' 
we should, for this reason, write 'tant,' 'hant,' 
' dant,' and ' lanch ' instead of ' taunt,' ' haunt,' 
'daunt,' and ' launch.' But nature and habit are 
not to be trifled with. Both experience and 



118 A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

reason combat all sudden changes. If they are 
to be, they will come in good time ; meanwhile let 
us watch and follow. 

Again, the reformers of our spelling would have 
us cut off the ending ue from such words as ' ca- 
talogue,' * demagogue,' ' synagogue/ ' colleague,' 
'harangue,' ' tongue,' &c, and spell them 4 catalog,' 
' demagog,' &c. It may be most confidently pre- 
dicted that, whatever may happen in the course of 
future ages, this change will not take place either 
in this or the next generation. 

Another proposed change is to invert the ending 
re, and write it er, as being more in accordance with 
English pronunciation. That this is the tendency 
of the language is not to be denied, for it is well 
known that many English words now ending in er 
were formerly written re. Such are the Norman 
names of the months — ' Septembre,' ' Octobre,' 
' Novembre,' ' Decembre,' &c. Some of this class 
have not yet adopted the change, and still appear 
in their French forms, as ' accoutre,' t centre,' 
' fibre,' ' lustre,' ' nitre,' ' ochre,' &c. But it is to 
be noticed that these are not common words — not 
words of the homestead or market-place — and that 
therefore they are much more likely to retain their 
old forms. In some of them, also, it is desirable 
to have two modes of spelling. We have ' meter ' 
in the sense of a measurer, as in ' barometer,' 



THE SPELLING OF WORDS. 119 

' thermometer,' &c, and ' metre ' in versification. 
1 Center ' appears as a verb, and ' centre ' as a 
noun. That most of this class will, in time, be 
spelled with the ending er is highly probable, but 
the above remark may account for their not having 
yet adopted that termination. 

It has often been objected to our language that 
ts study, as regards pronunciation and spelling, is 
more difficult than that of any of the continental 
languages. Foreigners endeavouring to master 
these difficulties are often quite overwhelmed by 
them, and not unfrequentiy give up the study in 
despair. But no language is without difficulties 
of this sort. Indeed, the difference between writ- 
ten and spoken French offers quite as formidable 
obstacles to the speller in French as could happen 
in English. The French words 6 ver ' (from ' ver- 
mis,' a worm), ' vert ' (from * viridis,' green), and 
1 verre ' (from l vitrum,' glass) are all pronounced 
exactly alike, and it is only by a knowledge of 
their derivation that one can account for the 
difference of their forms. Again, mere (from 
mater, a mother), mer (from mare, the sea), and 
maire (from major, greater) differ in spelling', 
though not in sound, because of their different 
derivations. If all these words had the same form 
of spelling because they have the same pronuncia- 
tion, no one could trace them to their source or 



320 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 

account for their meaning. We may, then, con- 
clude that the proper spelling of a word depends 
mainly on its etymology, and that the reason why 
bad spelling is looked upon with such disfavour is, 
that it argues ignorance of derivation. 

In all probability, if the project of instituting 
an English Academy for the regulation of our 
language were carried out, there would immedi- 
ately arise innumerable protests against its deci- 
sions. It is well known that the literary decrees 
of the French Academy are not generally accepted 
or adopted, and that the opinions of some of the 
most eminent literati in France are directly 
against its conclusions. Besides, the spirit of the 
English people is so strongly opposed to dictation, 
in this as in other matters, that such an institution 
would stand no chance of success in this country. 

It is too much the fashion now-a-days to find 
fault with English orthography, and it is also too 
much the fashion to acquiesce in its general 
condemnation. But, in truth, it is only those 
who have paid no attention to our language, as a 
scientific study, who can fail to recognise the 
causes of these objections. The three principal 
elements of English — viz. Saxon, French, and 
Latin — have, each, and all, had some influence on 
the formation of our words ; and this will account 
for the various forms of our spelling. A word, 



THE SPELLING OF WORDS. 121 

when introduced into a language, is at first spelled 
in accordance with the genius of the nation from 
which it comes. By degrees, and generally by 
slow degrees, it is moulded into a new form by 
the genius and instinct of the language in which 
it is at length naturalised ; still, however, retaining 
sufficient of its original form to indicate its source 
and etymology. Various causes contribute to 
effect this change ; a difference in pronunciation ; 
the influence of some local dialect, political, reli- 
gious, or literary disputes, the example of popular 
writers, &c. &c. may all assist in working a change 
in the outward forms of words. 

But a study of the subject will prove that this 
operation must be the work of time, and that no 
assumed power can, of itself, work a sudden change 
in spelling. This alone is sufficient to account for 
the failure of the phonographic system. It may 
also be laid down for certain, that any newly- 
proposed form of spelling which obscures or 
destroys the derivation of a word stands but little 
chance of success. The general body of writers 
knew full well that if they had at once adopted 
phonetic spelling, it would have inevitably involved 
the language in confusion and ruin by the destruc- 
tion of its etymology, and would have thus effaced 
every vestige of its beauty and variety. 



122 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 



CHAPTER IX. 

FLEXIBILITY, VARIETY, ETC. OF WORDS. 

The history of English, shows that it has been 
changed from a synthetical, to an analytical lan- 
guage, that in the course of time it has lost nearly 
all its inflections ; and that for these endings have 
been substituted signs and prepositions. Whether 
this change has been for the better, or for the worse, 
may be a matter for speculation ; but allowing that, 
in some respects, the language may have sustained 
a loss by this process, it is not difficult to show 
that for this we have some compensating advan- 
tages — and that the change has been favourable 
in at least two points : 1st. as regards variety of 
sound in the endings of words : and 2. flexibility 
in their use and application. 

In Latin, the recurrence of the verb in the same 
person naturally produced a repetition of the same 
termination, which must have had a very disagree- 
able and monotonous effect. In Cicero's second 
oration ' in Catilinam,' he has ' AbiiY, excess^, 



FLEXIBILITY, VARIETY, ETC. OF WOBDS. 123 

erup?'£, evas^.' Four consecutive words ending in 
it ! Another example of monotonous repetition, 
quoted by Cicero in his ' De datura Deorum ' is, 
1 clamo, postulo, obsecro, oro, ploro, atque imploro 
fidem.' Caesar's often-quoted letter, ' Vem', vid^, 
vie^ ' is open to the same objection, as well as the 
' tsedet harum quotidian arum formarumj of Ter- 
ence. In all these cases, the repetition of the 
endings must have produced a most harsh and 
disagreeable effect ; and if these passages were 
translated into English, we should probably find 
that every word had a different termination. 

But the flexibility of our language, which arises 
partly from the same cause, is another, and perhaps 
more important consideration. We can easily un- 
derstand that the system of inflection, however 
useful in itself, prevents the possibility of one part 
of speech being used for another. In English, 
1 love ' may be a noun or a verb ; but in Latin or 
French, we must use ' amare ' or c aimer ' for the 
verb, and ' amor ' or ' amour ' for the noun. This 
power of using one part of speech for another, 
exists to such an extent in English, that it may be 
almost said, that every word in the language may 
be applied in a variety of senses and grammatical 
constructions. That this is of incalculable advan- 
tage, every thoughtful English scholar will surely 
allow ; and it may be observed that not one of the 



124 A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

modern languages of Europe possesses this elastic 
power in the same degree as English. This may 
be seen in the following cases : — 

1st. Almost all our verbs in common use may 
be used as nouns. We have 'to walk,' or to take 
' a walk ; ' 'to ride,' or to enjoy ' a ride ; ' 'to 
talk,' or to have ' a talk ; ' to offer,' or to make ' an 
offer ; ' ' to visit,' or, to pay ' a visit,' &c. 

2. Xouns may be used as verbs: — We may say ' a 
telegraph;' or 'to telegraph' a message ; 'butter,' 
or ' to butter ' bread : ' sugar ; ' or ' to sugar ' tea ; 
' a quarter,' or ' to quarter ' a regiment, &c. 

3. Adjectives are used as nouns : — We may say 
' a round table,' or, ' a round ' of visits : a ' green ' 
tree, or to play on ' the green ; ' a ' beautiful ' 
prospect, or a love for ' the beautiful.' And not ' 
only can we use the adjective as a noun ; we may 
even give it a plural form. We often speak of ' eat- 
ables and drinkables.' A man may have a fit of 
the ' dismals,' or the 'blues; ' or he maybe anxious 
about his 'goods,' 'moveables,' or ' valuables,' &c. 

4. Adjectives are frequently used as verbs :— as, 
a ' clear ' way ; or to ' clear ' the way ; a ' long ' 
distance, or to ' long ' for something ; a ' still ' 
evening, or to ' still ' the waves, &c. 

5. Comparative adjectives are occasionally used 
as verbs ; as ' a better ' condition, or, ' to better ' 
our condition ; a ' lower ' state, or to ' lower ' a 



FLEXIBILITY, VARIETY, ETC. OF WORDS. 125 

rope ; ' further ' remarks, or ' to further' a design; 
4 utter ' nonsense, or ' to utter ' opinions, &e. 

6. Personal pronouns may be used as nouns : as, 
c A downright she.' — (Byron.) ' Left to be finished 
by such a she.'' — (Shakspere.) 

7. Conjunctions are frequently used as nouns ; 
as, * But me no huts.' How many ' thats* are 
there in the sentence ? ' Let us- have no more ifs 
and andsj &c. 

8. Prepositions may be used in like manner : as, 
The ins and outs of life. The ' aps and doivns ' of 
fortune, &c. 

9. Even adverbs are sometimes constructed as 
nouns ; as : — Which are in the majority ; the 
} ayes,' or the ' noes ? ' 

This extraordinary plasticity of English applies 
particularly to nouns signifying parts of the body. 
There is scarcely one of these which may not be 
turned into a verb. For example, we commonly 
hear that a man 'faces ' his difficulties with cour- 
age. Hamlet says of Polonius, ' You may nose him 
in the lobby.' In Shakspere' s ' Tempest ' we 
may read, ' Full many a lady I have eyed with best 
regard.' 

To jaw is sometimes used, though not very 
elegantly, in the sense of to chatter or scold. We 
often hear of a man ' elbowing ' his way through a 
crowd, and Goldsmith's 'Deserted Village' gives 



126 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 

us ' Shouldered his arms, and showed how fields 
were won.' 

To ' hand ' a plate, and to 'finger ' a passage on 
the piano, are everyday expressions. We also 
frequently hear of a coachman ' backing ' his 
horses, and Shakspere has ' to foot it featly.' 
Besides these, may be noticed ' to thumb the leaves 
of a book : to ' breast the waves,' * to palm off (for 
to cheat or deceive) ; ' to side with a party ; and 
to head an expedition. To these may be added ( to 
bone ' a fowl ; 'to shin ' a rabbit, and many others. 
It may be reasonably doubted whether this power 
exists to anything like the same extent in the 
continental languages. 

But not only the names of parts of the body ; 
also those of many articles of domestic use are 
employed in a similar way. We have to chair a 
member; we hear that people are boarded, and 
that the earth is carpeted with green. ' Curtained * 
sleep, and ' imbedded ' in the earth, belong to the 
same class. One man is said to floor another in 
argument. To 'picture to yourself;' to table the 
contents of a book ; to be closeted with a friend, 
to booh a debt ; to pen a letter ; to ink a dress ; to . 
paper a room, and to shelve a subject are all com- 
mon and daily expressions. They are, in every 
sense of the term, household words. 

In English, names of domestic animals are all 



FLEXIBILITY, VARIETY, ETC. OF WORDS. 127 

Saxon ; whereas wild beasts for the most part retain 
their Latin or French names. Thus 'cat,' ' hound/ 
'horse/ 'sheep,' 'cow,' 'swine,' &c., are of Ger- 
manic origin; whilst 'lion,' ' tiger,' 'elephant,' 
* leopard,' ' panther,' &c, come to us from Greek 
through Latin. The power we have to use these 
names of animals as verbs is another instance of the 
elasticity of our language. This can be done with 
some of the above Saxon names, though not with 
those of wild beasts. The noun ' horse ' is often 
used as a verb : a stable-keeper is said to horse a 
coach ; i.e. to supply it with horses. We have also 
to dodge ; i.e. to follow a scent in and out: like a dog. 
A man is hounded on to do such and such work ; 
while to rat is to desert your party. Every one 
knows that to duck is to dive in the water like a 
duck. People are also said to be gulled when they 
are easily deceived ; and to drone when they read 
or speak monotonously. 

It is remarkable how often, colloquially, we 
use the names of animals as types of temper or 
character. True, this is not peculiar to the English 
language : though the practice is perhaps here more 
extended. People continually employ the word 'ass ' 
or ' donkey ' in the sense of a stupid loutish fellow. 
They also often stigmatise a cunning man as a 
' fox ; ' or a scolding shrew as a ' vixen.' A proud 
little strut is called ' a cock of the walk ; ' and a 



128 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 

reckless spendrift is a ' sad dog ; ' or sometimes a 
1 jolly dog.' ' Puppy ' is suggestive of conceit and 
self-sufficiency ; and a slothful, indolent man is 
spoken of as a lazy 'hound.' A 'hog' is some- 
times used as a metaphor for a glutton ; and a ' pig ' 
for a dirty fellow. ' Pig-headed ' is also applied 
to one of stubborn temper ; a ' mule ' is a type of 
obstinacy ; and a ' horse,' in the sense of a beast 
of burden, is found in ' towel-horse,' or ' clothes- 
horse.' Men of rude manners are spoken of as 
4 bears,' and the weak or timid in disposition are 
called l chicken' -hearted. A fond mother speaks 
of her child as her pet * lamb,' or little ' duck.' 
Silliness is typified by ' goose,' and mischief by 
' monkey,' &c. Here it will be found that these 
words are, with one or two exceptions, used in a 
disparaging, and not in a favourable, sense. They 
are, most of them, terms of reproach, not of 
praise. 

Words have not only degenerated in sense ; 
their outward form has also suffered. One prin- 
ciple — contraction — has affected both the pronun- 
ciation and spelling of many words. It may be 
taken as a general rule that words, as they grow 
older, become softer and shorter. They seldom 
expand, but almost always contract. This pro- 
bably originated in a loose careless way of speaking, 
which afterwards affected the written language. 



FLEXIBILITY, VARIETY, ETC, OF WORDS. 129 

Contractions appear in a great variety of forms. 
1st* The j are made by cutting off an initial syl- 
lable, as ' 'prentice,' for 'apprentice ;' 'peach,' for 
6 impeach ;' ■ 'gin,' for - engine ;' ' 'suage,' for ' as- 
suage ; ' - ' cyclop a3clia,' for ' encyclopa3dia ; ' &c. 
Among the words which have lost their initial 
letters, three are to be especially noticed : viz. 
'luck,' 'irksome,' and 'orchard.' The first of 
these was originally ' Grliick,' and is still so spelled 
in German, whence it comes. ' Irksome ' was in 
Anglo-Saxon written ' (w)eorcsam,' i.e. full of 
work, and therefore troublesome ; and ' orchard ' 
is a corruption of ' (w)ort-yard,' that is, a yard in 
which (worts) plants or vegetables were grown. 
2nd. By cutting off a final syllable ; as in ' pro 
and con,' for ' contra ;' ' cit,' for ' citizen ;' ' with- 
out,' formerly 'withouten;' 'incog,' for 'incog- 
nito ;' ' hyp,' for ' hypochondria ;' ' consols,' for 
' consolidated annuities,' &c. 3rd. By taking a 
letter, or letters, from the middle of a word ; as 
'else,' for ' elles ;' 'lark,' for 'laverock;' 'last,' 
for 'latest;' 'lord,' for ' hlaford ;' 'since,' for 
' sithence ;' ' parrot,' for ' perroquet ;' and ' fort- 
night,' for ' fourteen nights ;' ' cheer up ' is con- 
tracted into ' chirrup,' and then into ' chirp ;' 
' speak ' comes from ' sprecan ;' and the Anglo- 
Saxon ' wi/man ' appears as ' woman.' By the 
same law are formed many proper names. 'Twell,' 

K 



130 A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

for 'at the well;' ' Thill,' for 'at the hill;' 'Ox- 
ford,' for ' Oxewford ;' ' Cambridge,' for ' Cante- 
brigge,' &c. 

Many other cases may be cited as examples of 
this law. The word ' (E)piscop(us) ' has suffered 
a mutilation at both the beginning and the end ; 
and appears in English as ' Bishop.' The prefix 
c ge,' commonly used in Saxon, and still retained 
in German participles, lingered for some time in 
English in the softened form of y ; as in ' yclept,' 
1 ^/clothed,' &c. ; but it has now vanished from the 
language. Another instance of the same tendency 
may be seen in the present pronunciation of par- 
ticiples ending in c ed.' Formerly, the word 'used' 
was always pronounced as a dissyllable — ' used ; ' 
now it is universally pronounced as a monosyllable. 
Indeed, this final ' ed,' as a distinct syllable 
though still occasionally heard in the pulpit, is 
fast disappearing from our language. 

Contraction was the main principle on which 
the ancient Latin was transformed into French. 
It is curious to observe that though this contract- 
ing power did operate in Italian, it was not there 
carried out to the same degree as in French ; that 
is, though Italian words are, in most cases, 
shorter than their Latin equivalents, they are not 
so contracted as the French words of the same 
meaning. This may be easily shown by compari- 
son: — 



FLEXIBILITY, VARIETY, ETC. OF WORDS. 131 



Latin. 


Italian. 


French. 


apotheca . . 


. . bottega . 


. . boutique 


male-aptus 


. . malatto 


. . malacle 


quisque unus . 


. . eiascuno . 


. chacun 


ad hanc horam 


. ancora . . 


. encore 


ad illam horam . 


. allora . . 


. alors 


ad satis . . . 


. assai . . 


. assez 


in simul . . . 


. insieme 


. ensemble 


semetipsissimus 


. medesimo 


. meme 


de retro . . . 


. dietro . 


. derriere 


de illo . . . . 


. dello . . 


. du 


homo . . . . 


. uomo 


. on 


gaudium . . . 


- giojo . 


. joie 


and many others. 







Expansion. 

On the other hand, there are some few cases 
where words are expanded or widened by the in- 
sertion of a letter. 1st. Of a yowel. We have 
' alarum,' for ' alarm ; ' ' lawz/er,' for ' lawer ; ' 
' clothier,' for ' clother.' The i is also inserted in 
' parliament/ l Saviour, ' 'handicraft,' 'handwork,' 
6 periwinkle,' and a few others. 

2nd. Sometimes, I or r is inserted ; as in ' prin- 
cipZe,' from 'principe;' ' syllable,' from ' syllabe;' 
( cartridge,' from ' cartonche ;' ' partridge,' from 
the Latin ' perdix,' through the French ' perdrix ; ' 
'groom,' from the Anglo-Saxon ' guma,' a man; 
'vagrant,' from ' vagans ;' and 'corporal,' from 
'caporal.' 

3rd. P and B are often inserted after m\ as 
x2 



132 A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

6 empty/ Anglo-Saxon ' semtig ;' ' tempt,' from 
the French ' tenter ;' ' em&ers,' from the Anglo- 
Saxon ' semyrje ;' ' nimble,' from the Anglo-Saxon 
'nemol.' Also in 'larnZ?,' ' limZ?/ ' crumfr,' ' thumfr,' 
and c nnm&,' the b forms no part of the root. 

4th. D naturally attaches itself to n final ; as in 
c sounc£,' ' riband,' ' len^,' &c. This may probably 
account for certain provincial pronunciations, as 
' gowned, ' ' drown^,' &c. Also in ' thunder,' ' kin- 
dred,' and ' yonder,' the d is parasitical. 

Assimilation. 

Assimilation, or the coming together of letters 
which have an affinity for each other, is a prin- 
ciple which affects the spelling, as well as the 
pronunciation, of many English words. This law 
softens the pronunciation, and will account for the 
frequent occurrence of a double consonant at the 
beginning of a large class of words. The rule is 
here : — £ When a prefix ending in a consonant is 
applied to a root beginning with one, that consonant 
disappears, and there is substituted for it the initial 
consonant of the root.' This happens most fre- 
quently in English words compounded with Latin 
prepositions. The d in the preposition ' ad ' is 
often assimilated to the initial consonant of the 
root to which it is applied. 

The word ' accede ' is made up of ' ad ' (to) and 



FLEXIBILITY, VARIETY, ETC. OF WORDS. 133 

1 cede ' (come) . But the initial c in ' cede ' as- 
similated to itself the d in l ad,' i.e. changed it 
into a c. Thus'adcede' became ' accede.' This 
law will account for the double consonant in such 
forms; as 'accost,' 'a^rieve,' 'aZZude, 5 ' ammuni- 
tion,' ' awwex,' ' apply,' 'assist,' ' az^ract,' and many 
others. In all these cases the first syllable was 
originally ' ad. 1 

This law applies with equal force to other Latin 
prepositions which enter into the formation of 
English words; as 'con,' 'in,' 'per,' 'sub,' &c. 
We spell the word ' collect ' for ' conlect;' com- 
mune,' for ' conmune,' &c. On the same principle 
we write 'iZZegal,' for 'inlegal;' 'irregular,' for 
' inregular ;' ' peZZucid,' for ' perlucid ;' ' succumb,' 
for ' subcumb ;' and many others. But when the 
root begins with a labial (b, p, or m), then the 
final consonant of the preposition is always 
changed into m. This is why we write ' imbibe,' 
and not ' ibbibe ;' ' imbue,' not ' ibbue ;' and ' im- 
possible,' not ' ipposible,' &c. 

This principle of assimilation has operated in 
the formation of the words ' hammock ' and ' stir- 
rup.' The first is from ' hang- mat,' where the ng 
has been assimilated to m. The second is from 
the Anglo-Saxon ' stig-rope ' (literally, ' mount- 
rope,' or rope to mount by), where r is substituted 
for the g in ' stig.' 



134 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 

Attraction. 
Attraction is another principle which affects the 
forms of certain words. Sometimes a consonant 
is drawn away from the word to which it properly 
belongs, and becomes a part of its neighbour. The 
effect of this law is especially remarkable in the 
article ' an. 9 In certain cases the n (of aw) does 
not really belong to the article, but is the initial 
letter of the nonn following. This happens in the 
case of ' an orange ;' the word c orange ' is, in 
Spanish, whence it is derived, ' naranja,' and we 
should therefore write c a norange ' rather than 
' an orange.' But the article a has attracted to 
itself the initial n of the noun, and the result is — 
6 an orange.' For the same reason ' an adder ' 
should be written 'a natter,' or 'a nadder.' On 
the other hand, there are cases in which the n of 
the article is attracted into the following word. 
If the word ' apron ' is from the French ' naperon ' 
(from nappe, cloth), we should write c a napron,' 
and not ' an apron.' Several of these cases may be 
pointed out. We say and write, ' a neap tide,' 
instead of ' an ebb tide ;' 'a newt,' for ' an ewt ' 
(or eft) ; and, on the other hand, ' an auger,' for 
' a nauger ;' 'an awl,' for ' a nawl ;' and ' an um- 
pire' for 'a nompire.' The same principle operates 
in certain French expressions. The province of 



FLEXIBILITY, VARIETY, ETC. OF WOBDS. 135 

Southern Italy formerly known as 'Apulia,' is 
in French written ' La Pouille.' Here the a initial 
of 'Apulia' is attracted into the article. The 
expression should be 'L'Apouille,' and not 'La 
Pouille.' In the same way, the French call 'Ana- 
tolia ' (Asia Minor), ' La Natolie ; ' whereas it 
should be written ' L' Anatolie.' It is from the 
Greek avaroXr] — the rising of the sun. 

Accent 
The accent of an English word depends chiefly 
on its derivation. In words of Saxon origin, it 
is placed on the root. For example, ' love ' is an 
accented monosyllable, and preserves its accent on 
the root, in all its derivations ; as in ' loving,' 
' loveliness, ' ' loveable, ' &c. But in Homance 
words, the tendency is to put the accent on the 
branches, and not on the root. In French, the 
vocabulary is drawn mainly from Latin words 
without their inflections. The French words 
'nature,' 'fatal,' ' aimable,' &c, have the accent 
on the second syllable, because they are formed 
from the Latin 'natura,' 'fatalis,' and 'amabilis,' 
without the endings. But in English all these and 
similar words are accented on the first syllable ; 
and we pronounce them 'nature,' 'fatal,' 'amiable. 5 
In Chaucer's poetry, many French words are 
accented on the second or third syllable, in 



136 A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

accordance with the classical principle ; thus, we 
there find 'honour/ 'nation/ 'company/ &c. All 
these, after Chaucer's time, shifted the accent back 
to the first syllable, thus conforming themselves 
to the genius of the English language. There is, 
to this day, in English a conflict in the accent 
between the two principles, the Teutonic and the 
Romance ; the former leaning to the root, and the 
latter to the branches of the word. But even in 
classical words, as regards accent, the Saxon 
genius clearly prevails. We accent the word 
' ordinary ' on the first syllable, which contains 
the pith of its meaning ; whereas the French place 
the accent on the last: — ' ordinaire.' It was pro- 
bably the antagonism between these two principles 
— the Germanic tendency toward the beginning, 
and the Romance toward the end, of the word, 
which caused the accent in English to be so long 
unsettled. But the genius of the Saxon even- 
tually triumphed over the French element, in 
accent as well as in grammatical forms, and the 
general rule in English pronunciation, is to put 
the accent on the root. 

The spelling of certain English derivatives de- 
pends on the place of the accent in their roots. 
Now, when the last syllable of the root is accented, 
the final consonant must be doubled in the deriva- 
tive, This accounts for the root 'rob' (with one 



FLEXIBILITY, VARIETY, ETC. OF WORD « 137 

b), making 'ro&£ed,' and ' rohber,' (with two b's) 
admi£ (one i), making admired (two t's), &c. 

But when the accent lies on any other syllable 
of the root, the final consonant must remain single 
in the derivative, as * limit/ 'limited;' 'differ,' 'dif- 
fering ; ' ' benefit,' ' benefited ; ' &c. This rale applies 
only to root-endings consisting of a single vowel fol- 
lowed by a single consonant ; for if a diphthong 
precede, the consonant must remain single in the 
derivative. We must therefore write 'joiner,' 'steam- 
ing,' ' toi?ing,' ' reacZer,' &c, with single consonants. 

But there are exceptions to this general rale. 
One especially regards roots ending in I. These 
always double the I in the derivative, whether the 
last syllable of the root be accented or not. The 
verb 'to expel,' will, by the above rule, naturally 
make its past tense, ' expelled ; ' but why should 
1 travel ' give ' traveller,' or ' equal,' ' equalled ? ' 
These, though universally adopted, are clearly 
against the principle. Two other words are also 
exceptions, 'worship,' and 'bias.' These make 
'worshipped,' and 'biassed,' with double conson- 
ants. The Americans refuse to admit these excep- 
tions, and they write 'traveler,' 'equated,' 'wor- 
shiped,' and 'biased,' with single consonants. It 
must be admitted that they are right in principle, 
but the general practice in English is in these cases 
decidedly in favour of the double consonant. 



138 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 

Inversion. 
There appears in certain letters a peculiar ten- 
dency to get out of order — to slip into a wrong 
place — a restless desire for change. No letter of 
the alphabet is more subject to this affection than 
the liquid, r. Many French words ending in re, 
are found in English to end in er. The French 
' lettre ' is in English 'letter.' The final syllables 
of ' Septembre,' ' Octobre,' ' Novembre ' and ' De- 
cembre,' are inverted in English, and are written 
c September,' &c. The Greek root kpir (creep) 
gave in Latin ' repere ; ' whence we have ' reptile,' 
&c. ' Bmnt,' is derived from ' b^rn.' The ' brunt ' 
of a battle is where it ' burns ' most fiercely. 
Again : a ' purpose ' is what we ' propose ' to do ; 
and ' to tmndle ' a hoop is to ' turn ' it repeatedly. 
The Saxon verb ' ^rnan,' is the source of the 
English 'run.' 'Brimstone' is an inversion of 
1 b^rn-stone ; and the verb to ' ask,' was in Anglo- 
Saxon, ' axian.' Chaucer has ' drit ' for ' dirt ; ' 
1 briddes,' for i birds,' &c. 

Corruption. 

When a word is warped or distorted from its 

original form, either by a vicious pronunciation, 

or by a mistaken notion of its derivation, it is 

said to be a corruption. Though we must accept 



FLEXIBILITY, VARIETY, ETC. OF WORD 8. 139 

and adopt the usual spelling of snch words, it may 
be nseful and interesting to know what bronght 
them into their present forms. 

When a word is first pronounced in the hear- 
ing of those who do not know its meaning, its 
spelling naturally becomes with them, a mere 
imitation of the sound. It is remarkable how 
often these corruptions appear in the names of 
taverns and ships. Such words being most fre- 
quently in the mouths of the illiterate, will soon 
acquire a false pronunciation, which, after a time, 
leads to a false spelling, and hence many of their 
present forms. It was this rude attempt to 
imitate a sound that led the sailors to call their 
ship ' Bellerophon ' the c Billy Ruffian.' From the 
same cause, the sign of the ' Boulogne Mouth ' was 
corrupted into ' Bull and Mouth ; ' and the ' Bac- 
chanals ' (a very appropriate name for an inn), 
was transformed into the ' Bag of Nails.' It is 
said that our soldiers in India could never be 
taught to pronounce properly ' Surajah Dowlah,' 
the name of that Bengal prince who figured in 
the affair of the Black Hole. They persisted, in 
calling him ' Sir Roger Dowlas ! ' 

Some of these corrupt forms are so firmly rooted 
in the language, that they must now be recognised 
as correct, and adopted accordingly. We are told 
that the word ' grocer ' was originally ' grosser/ 



140 A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

and meant one who sold articles in the gross {en 
gros). This is probably the true explanation ; but 
we must not, on that account, revert to the old 
spelling. It would be eccentric and pedantic in 
the extreme to write ' rightwise ' for ' righteous ; ' 
c frontispice ' for ' frontispiece,' or ' shamefast ' 
for 'shamefaced; ' for though the first may have 
been the true and original form of these words, 
custom must here take precedence of derivation, 
and we must spell them according to the present 
usual practice. 



DIFFERENT VIEWS OF THE SAME IDEA. 141 



CHAPTER X. 

DIFFERENT YIEWS OF THE SAME IDEA. 

It is worthy of obserYation that all nations do not 
express the same idea by the same form of word, 
i.e. that in different languages the same idea is 
often represented by a word of a distinctly dif- 
ferent root. How comes it, we may ask, that the 
Romance languages of Europe, Yiz. French, 
Italian, Spanish, &c. all use forms of the origin- 
ally same word to express their idea of ' king, 9 yiz. 
roi, re, rey ? These languages being off- shoots of 
Latin, the above words are all derived from the 
Latin i rex/ from 'rego,' ' I rule,' or exert physical 
power. Now in the Teutonic languages of Europe 
— Dutch, German, English, etc. — we find this 
idea in a very different phase : ' Konig,' ' Konig,' 
' King.' The root of these words may be found in 
' kennen,' ' to know.' From this it would appear 
that the idea of a ruler in one class of nations was 
a physically strong man, who, by means of his 



142 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 

bodily strength, could force his subjects to do his 
will. The Saxon for ' king ' was ' cyning,' from 
6 cnawan ' to know, i.e. one who ' knew ' better 
than his subjects or followers — who was superior 
to them in knowledge. "We may, perhaps, con- 
clude from this that the Romance nations regarded 
strength or physical power as the distinguishing 
quality of a ruler; whereas the Germanic tribes 
saw in their leader one who was able to guide 
them aright by his superior thought and judg- 
ment. The Romans looked to the hand, the Ger- 
mans to the head, in this matter. Is it not likely 
that attention to such differences may throw some 
light on national characteristics ? 

Another example of this difference of view of 
the same idea may be seen in the English word 
'finger,' as compared with the French 'doigt.' 
6 Finger ' is connected with the German ' fangen,' 
to take hold of, and is a relation of our word 
6 fang,' i.e. the tooth with which certain animals 
hold their prey. In the Germanic view of the 
word it is the instrument with which we e take 
hold.' On the other hand, the Greek daKrvXoc, from 
SeiKvvjjLi, I show or point out, appeared in Latin 
as ' digitus ;' passed into Italian as ' dito,' and into 
French as ' doigt.' The Romance view of the word 
would then be ' a pointer or indicator,' and the 
Teutonic a holder or catcher. 



DIFFEBENT VIEWS OF THE SAME IDEA. 143 

The French word 'mouchoir' will also illustrate 
this difference of view. This is from ' (se) moucher,' 
to wipe (the nose). It would be considered ex- 
tremely vulgar to call this article in English ' a 
wiper,' and yet this is literally its French meaning. 
The Germans have named it £ Sehnupftuch,' or 
' snuff- cloth,' another view of the same thing. But 
the corresponding English word, ' handkerchief,' 
presents us with a most curious anomaly. The first 
form of the word was ' kerchief,' which is the old 
French ' couvre-chef,' i.e. a covering for the head, 
just as ' curfew ' was from ' couvre-feu ' — e cover- 
fire.' Milton has the word ' kerchiefed ' in the 
sense of ' with the head covered.' He speaks of 
Morn— 

Kerchiefed in a comely cloud. — Penseroso. 

Now, if to ' kerchief ' we prefix ' hand,' we have a 
word which seems to mean a covering for the head, 
held in the hand — which is a manifest absurdity ! 
But the climax of confusion is reached when we 
qualify this word by l pocket.' How the covering 
for the head is to be held in the hand, and yet 
carried in the pocket is enough to puzzle anyone. 

Another instance of this description may be 
seen in the word ' heaven.' In the Teutonic 
languages it represents the idea of something 
raised on high, or heaved up — from ' heafan ' and 
' heben,' to lift up, or elevate. But the Romance 



144 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 

view of this word is connected with the idea of 
hollo wness or concavity. The Greek koIXov ; the 
Latin ' ccehim ;' the Italian ' cielo ;' and the French 
' ciel ' — all involve the meaning of a hollow, or 
arched covering. 

A great variety of expression may be also 
seen if we compare together the idioms of several 
European languages. These peculiarities may be 
looked upon as characterising the tone and habits 
of thought of a nation, and they deserve especial 
study and attention. If we take the usual form 
of greeting in English — ' How do you do ? J here 
we may see that the verb do is indicative of the 
activity and practical nature of the English mind. 
It would seem as if in this country our bodily 
health actually depends upon our doing ; i.e. our 
business habits ; that to be occupied is equivalent 
to being in good health. Now if we take the 
ordinary corresponding French phrase — ' Comment 
vous jportez-vous ?' — we may fairly infer that the 
well-being in this case depends on the carriage, 
or outward bearing of the person. The Germans, 
under the same circumstances, say : ' Wie befinden 
Sie sich?' (literally, 'how do they find them- 
selves ?) May not this form of expression throw 
some light on the German character ? May it 
not point to that tendency to deep reflection which 
is known to be so strikingly distinctive of the 



DIFFERENT VIEWS OF THE SAME IDEA. 145 

German tone of mind ? From this we may con- 
clude that the German is so habituated to deep 
thought that he cannot even tell you the state of 
his health, without searching till he finds it out. 
The Italian corresponding form, ' Come sta ? ' (lite- 
rally, * How does he stand ? ' ) , is referred to the stand- 
ing of the Lombard merchants in the market-place ; 
and in this case, the well-being or health seems to 
have depended on the prosperity of the dealer. 
In these remarks on the different forms of greet- 
ing, there may appear something fanciful, but one 
thing is clear, viz. that they all differ from each 
other, and it is but natural to conclude, that each 
has some connection with the turn of mind of the 
people to which it belongs. Of course it would 
be wrong to form positive opinions concerning 
national character, from the examination of only 
one idiom ; and it would be necessary to collect 
and compare a large number of examples to arrive 
at satisfactory conclusions on this head. But we 
should look into the philosophy of idiom more 
keenly, for here we are most likely to find a key 
to the character of every civilised nation. 

Another example of this variety may be seen' 
in the form of address adopted in the different 
countries of Europe. We English speak to one 
another in the second person plural, even when 
we address one person. We say 'you are,' to one 

L 



146 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 

single person, and if we have to address a thou- 
sand, we must use the same form. This may, 
probably, partly account for the grammatical fault 
so commonly made by the uneducated — • you was.'' 
Feeling that they are speaking to only one person, 
and not knowing that the pronoun (you) is, strictly 
speaking, plural, they very naturally — though, of 
course, incorrectly — put the ' you ' and the i was ' 
together. 

The French also adopt the second person plural 
in the same case — 'vous etes.' But they use the 
second person singular much more frequently than 
we do, especially between relations and intimate 
friends. ' Tu ' and ' toi,' however, have lost much 
of their former charm since the great revolution, 
when the levelling spirit of the Government merged 
all differences of rank into one common form of 
address. In certain circumstances, the French 
use the third person singular as a mark of respect. 
When a lady goes into a shop in Paris, the first 
question asked her is, ' Qu'est-ce que madame 
desire ? ' and, in the same way, her servant says to 
her, ' Madame, a-t-elle sonne ? ' 

The Germans, in the same circumstances, use 
the third person plural — ' Sie sind,' literally ' they 
are.' This usage has prevailed in Germany ever 
since the sixteenth century, and is supposed to 
express respect. But in cases of intimacy, or 



DIFFERENT VIEWS OF THE SAME IDEA. 147 

relationship, tlie Germans also use the pronoun of 
the second person singular. A German husband 
always addresses his wife, or a brother his sister, 
as du, but if scorn or contempt be intended, then 
the third person singular is adopted. In Germany, 
the best way to get rid of an importunate beggar 
is to exclaim, ' Was will er ? ' which is about equi- 
valent to our • What does the fellow want ? ' 

Majesty still speaks, in this country, in the 
plural number. The Queen issues a proclamation, 
beginning with : — ' Given at our court of St. 
James', &c. The editorial 'we' is also well known 
as expressing a certain importance and authority. 
In Italy, the form used in addressing any one is 
the third person singular, 'Come sta,' literally, 
' How does he stand ? ' 

If we compare the words which express degrees 
of kindred or relationship in one language with 
those of a corresponding class in another, we shall 
find distinctly different pictures. The French words 
'mari' and'femme,' merely show a difference of sex. 
' Mari ' is from the Latin ' maritus ' (mas, maris), 'a 
male,' and 'femme,' is derived from 'femina,' 'fe- 
male.' But if we put against these the correspond- 
ing English terms ' husband ' and ' wife,' a totally 
new scene is opened to our view. \ Husband ' is 
etymologically, the ' man of the house,' or the 'house- 
protector;' and the 'wife' is the 'weaving- one.' 
i2 



148 A BOOK ABOUT WOBBS. 

Indeed, we shall find that most of the Saxon words 
expressing degrees of kindred, have reference to 
occupations. The husband was the head or pro- 
tector of the house. The wife (as her name 
shows) wove the cloth for the use of the family. 
But before the cloth could be woven, it must be 
spun, and this was done by the grown-up un- 
married women, for that reason called ' spinsters.' 
The word ' daughter ' is traced to a Sanscrit root, 
' dhu ' — milk ; whence we infer that the daughters 
milked the cows, a very appropriate occupation in 
a primitive state of society. The word ' son ' is 
supposed to be derived from a Sanscrit root ' su ' 
or 6 pu,' originally signifying 'clean,' from which 
we may conclude that their office was to clean out 
the house. The 'husband' then was the 'pro- 
tector ; ' the ' wife/ the ' weaver ; ' the ' unmarried 
women,' the 'spinners' (or 'spinsters'); the 
'daughters,' the 'milkers;' and the 'sons,' the 
'cleaners.' With what hallowed feelings are all 
these words associated, and what a vivid picture 
do they present of the primitive simplicity of 
family society! No such picture of domestic life 
is exhibited in the Latin or French words which 
express these relations, and we may look in vain 
for anything of this sort in the Romance lan- 
guages. 

The Teutonic view of the place of punishment 



DIFFERENT VIEWS OF THE SAME IDEA. 149 

In a future life, somewhat differs from the Romance- 
We English call it hell, the French and Italians, 
enfer and inferno. Our word is derived from the 
old Saxon verb ' helan,' ' to cover up ' or ' hide ; ' 
' enfer ' and ' inferno ' are from ' inferus,' ' below,' 
so that the Germanic idea is here * a concealed or 
covered place ; ' the classical view of the same is 
' the place below, or underground.' 

If we compare the English word 'shoe,' with 
the French ' Soulier,' we shall also find a difference 
in the original meaning. They both represent the 
same article of dress, but our word i shoe ' is from 
' shove,' it is that into which we ' shove ' the foot ; 
whereas the French ' Soulier ' rather suggests ' san- 
dal' than 'shoe,' properly so called. It means 
literally, something 'bound under' (sous-lie), i.e. 
under the foot. 

Our common word c thimble,' is connected with 
'thumb,' on which it was originally worn. The 
Germans choose to call this article ' Fingerhut,' 
literally, a 'finger-hat,' i.e. a hat or covering for 
the finger. 



150 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 



CHAPTER XI 



COMPOUND WORDS. 



One of the greatest advantages a language can 
possess, is the power of forming compound words. 
This materially contributes to its conciseness ; — 
makes it comparatively easy to express much in 
few words — and thus assists, by concentrating its 
force, in rendering it vigorous and impressive. 
This power of compounding is found chiefly in the 
Teutonic languages of Europe ; and is compara- 
tively unknown in the Romance. In our own 
case, it was considerably modified by the Korman 
Conquest, which introduced a French (or Latin) 
element into English. We still, however, possess 
this power to a considerable extent; and herein 
we enjoy certain advantages unknown to French 
or Italian. German, the most cultivated of all 
the Teutonic languages, has much more of this 
characteristic ; and, in point of closeness and com- 
pactness of expression, is superior to English. But 



COMPOUND WOBDS. 151 

there are symptoms of its still farther decrease in 
our language, and it is worthy of observation that 
the general tendency with us is to give up Saxon 
compounds, and to substitute for them Latin or 
French terms. The old word ' deaths man ' has its 
present equivalent in ' executioner ; ' i mildheart- 
edness ' has become ' mercy;' t long-suffering, ' ' pa- 
tience,' &c. The verb c to gainsay ' still lingers in 
the language, but its place is now generally taken 
by c to contradict.' ' To gainstrive ' is supplanted 
by 'to oppose.' ' To inspect ' is preferred before 
'to look into;' and \ to despise' is used rather than 
i to look down upon.' 

The first English poet who gave prominence to 
this power of combination was Chapman, who 
applied it with wonderfully happy effect in his 
Homer's Iliad, in translating the compound Greek 
epithets which so frequently occur in that poem ; 
such as ' swift- footed ; ' £ ivory- wristed ; ' ' white- 
armed ; ' c many-headed ; ' ' rosy- fingered,' &c. 
Most of these were afterwards adopted by Pope. 
There is a tendency in some modern English 
writers to carry this compounding power to an 
unwarrantable extent, a practice which should 
certainly be resisted, as being opposed to the 
genius of our language, and also giving evidence 
of aping after Germanic forms, and thus trans- 
gressing the proper limits of the language. The 



152 A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS, 

late Madame d'Arblay, in her 'Memoirs of Dr. 
Burney, speaks of the very-handsome,-though-no- 
longer - in - her - bloom - Mrs. Stevens ! ' and this 
anthoress also has the ' sudden-at-the-moment- 
though- from -lingering - illness - often - previously- 
expected- death.' But this is really too bad. ' It 
ont-Herods Herod ; ' and in these cases is a mere 
piece of affectation. 

The mania at one time for these long- tailed ad- 
jectives, was very cleverly ridiculed by the brothers 
James and Horace Smith, in their 'Rejected 
Addresses.' Here in caricaturing the style of the 
'Morning Post,' they speak of the ' not-a-bit-the- 
less- on- that- account-to -be-universally- execrated- 
monster-Bonaparte.' Another of these extraordi- 
nary epithetsis : — 'That-deeply-to-be-abhorred-and- 
highly- to - be - blamed - stratagem - the - Gunpowder- 
Plot ! ' But the climax of the caricature is reached 
in the following. Speaking of Covent-garden mar- 
ket, the writer calls it ' The-in- general- strewn- 
with- cabbage- stalks-but- on- Saturday-night-lighted 
-up-with-lamps-market-of-Covent-garden ! ! ' But 
such legitimate compound forms as 'ill-assorted,' 
'cloud-capped,' 'far-darting,' &c, are highly valu- 
able, and of great service to the language. It is 
to be observed that none of these are literally 
translatable into French. For such an adjective 
as 'broken-hearted,' there is no corresponding 



COMPOUND W0BD8. 153 

equivalent in that language. The only way to 
express, in French, any approach to the meaning 
of our word, is to use a ponderous circumlocution, 
which will require at least three or four terms. 
The expression is thus enfeebled by being broken 
up into a number of words, and it loses all the 
force and vigour of the English. A 'broken- 
hearted father ' would be probably expressed in 
French by ' un pere qui a le cceur brise ' — exactly 
five words for our one. And so of all other com- 
pound terms. In fact, French does not lend itself 
to closeness and compactness of expression ; and, 
in this respect, is far inferior to any of the Teu- 
tonic languages. 

One peculiarity of the Saxon part of English is 
its monosyllabic nature. This was chiefly caused 
by the falling-off of the endings. All our preposi- 
tions and conjunctions, beside most of the nouns, 
verbs, and adjectives in common use, are mono- 
syllables. These form the staple of the English 
language, and are the chief elements of closeness 
and brevity of expression. Our legitimate com- 
pound words seldom consist of more than two, or 
at most three, elements. The greater number are 
made up of monosyllables; as 'milk-maid,' 'oat- 
meal,' 'foot-boy,' 'hail-storm,' &c. In a few 
cases, they are compounded of three terms, as 
,' out-of-doors,' 'matter-of-fact,'' out-of-the-way/ 



154 A BOOK ABOUT WOBJDS. 

&c. ; but tliese are comparatively rare. There are 
few, if perhaps any, cases of English words which 
have more than seven syllables. This seems to 
be the length of our tether in this respect. 
Perhaps it is as well that it should be so ; for 
whatever may be said of the use of the compound- 
ing principle, as giving closeness and energy of 
expression, there is no doubt that, when carried 
to excess, it has a directly contrary effect. When 
a very large number of elements are fused together 
into one word, there is naturally a difficulty in 
getting at the original root and primary meaning 
of the whole ; and the expression becomes cum- 
brous and unintelligible. 

This combining or compounding power is of 
different degrees in different languages, but in the 
Mexican language it is carried to an incredible 
extent. Here, combinations are admitted so easily, 
that the simplest ideas are buried under a load of 
accessories. For example, the word for a £ priest,' 
consists of eleven syllables, and is there called 
'notlazomahuizleopixcatatzin,' which means lite- 
rally, i venerable minister of God, whom I love as 
my father.' A still more comprehensive word is 
6 amatlacuilolitquitcatlaxtlahuitli, ' which means 
1 the reward given to a messenger who brings a 
hieroglyphical map conveying intelligence.' 

This system displays a most curious mechanism, 



COMPOUND WOBDS. 155 

which, by bringing the greatest number of ideas 
into the smallest possible compass, condenses 
whole sentences into a single word. Many of our 
older writers indulged in derivatives and compound 
words to an extent which the language does not 
now admit, in consequence of its having lost part 
of its Saxon character. We still have ' to undo ; ' 
but to 'unput' (for to take away) and to 'nil- 
destroy ' (for to rebuild) were formerly used, and 
Fuller even employs the verb ' to ungrayhairj in 
the sense of 'to pull out gray hairs.' He writes 
of a man being 'ungrayhaired,' when all his gray 
hairs were plucked out of his head ! 



156 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 



CHAPTER XII. 

THE PRONUNCIATION OF WORDS. 

It is simply impossible to express sound by writ- 
ing, and therefore all instruction in pronunciation 
should be given viva voce. A pronouncing Dic- 
tionary may sometimes afford assistance ; but 
in many cases it must fail, as it is an attempt to 
explain varieties or shades of sound by varieties of 
shape, i.e. combinations of written letters — in fine, 
objects of one sense by those of another. 

It is not easy to fix a standard of pronunciation. 
At one time the stage, then the bar, and, later 
still, the pulpit, have been considered as authorities 
in this matter. But all these are now rejected, 
and the conversation of the highest classes in 
London society is now looked upon as the standard 
of English pronunciation. 

Pronunciation, like everything else connected 
with language, varies continually with the influence 
of time and fashion ; and it is well known that, 



THE PRONUNCIATION OF WORDS. 157 

even fifty years ago, many English words were pro- 
nounced differently from the present practice. It 
was formerly the fashion to pronounce ' leisure ' 
(which now rhymes with ' pleasure ') as if written 
' leezure ' (to rhyme with 'seizure'). This was 
never a vulgar pronunciation ; it was done by 
the highest classes. It was also the fashion to 
pronounce ' oblige ' more like the French verb 
'obliger' as if written ' obleege,' and this also 
was the practice with the best educated. ' Gold ' 
also was formerly pronounced by good speakers 
as if rhyming with ' ruled ; ' now it properly 
rhymes with ' old ' or c cold.' 

We may conclude, from some of Pope's rhymes, 
that, in the early part of the eighteenth century, 
our language was not pronounced exactly as it is 
at present. He has ' line ' and 'join' rhyming 
with each other ; also ' vice ' and ' destroys/ 
1 power ' and ' secure,' ' safe ' and ' laugh,' ' obey ' 
and ' tea,' &c. Some of these may have been 
peculiar to the poet himself, and may be regarded 
as bad rhymes ; still, as Pope was an authority for 
the language of his own time, most of them were, 
in all probability, recognised as correct. 

Stories are told of the peculiar pronunciation of 
some of the leading literati of the last century 
which appear scarcely credible. Dr. Johnson is 
said to have pronounced the word ' fair ' like ' fear,' 



158 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 

and the adverb ' once ' as if written ' woonse.' 
He also called ' punch. ' ' poonsh.' Garrick was 
often remarked for saying ' shupreme ' and ' shu- 
perior ' for ' supreme ' and ' superior.' He also pro- 
nounced ' Israel ' as ' Isrel,' ' villain ' as if * villin,' 
and, still more strangely, ' appeal ' as ' appal.' 

John Kemble had several peculiarities of pro- 
nunciation. He is known to have always said 
' bird' for 'beard,' ' ferse ' for 'fierce,' and my 
head ' aitches ' (for 'aches'). He persisted, too, 
in pronouncing ' Cato ' with the a broad, as if 
written ' Caato.' Of this peculiarity an amusing 
anecdote is related. ' One evening, at the Dublin 
Theatre, after the performance of Addison's tra- 
gedy, the manager appeared on the stage, and 
made the following statement : — " Ladies and 
gentlemen, to-morrow evening, with your per- 
mission, the tragedy of Cato will be repeated, the 
part of ' Caato ' by Mr. Kemble." ' 

Another story is told of the same eminent actor, 
who, when George III. said to him : ' Mr. Kem- 
ble, will you " obleege " me with a pinch of your 
snuff?' replied: 'With pleasure, your Majesty; 
but it would become your royal lips much better 
to say " oblige." ' 

Some of the actor Quin's pronunciations would 
be now considered very singular. He always pro- 
nounced the word ' face ' as if written ' faace,' and 



THE PRONUNCIATION OF WORDS. 159 

said ' tropically ' for ' tropically.' Also, in a certain 
classical drama, addressing the Roman guard, he 
desired them to lower their ■ faces ' (meaning their 
'fasces'). 

But, whatever may be the recognised standard 
of pronunciation, there always will be a refined 
and a vulgar mode of speech — one adopted by the 
cultivated and well-informed, and the other used 
by the rude and illiterate. It must be understood 
that there are only two ways in which our pro- 
nunciation may be at fault. 1. The accent may 
be placed on the wrong syllable ; or, 2. a wrong 
sound may be given to the vowels. Under the 
first head may be placed such faults as the follow- 
ing : — Some will say ' fanatic ' instead of ' fanatic,' 
and perhaps as often ' lunatic ' for i lunatic. ' Again, 
'mischievous' is wrong, both in accent and tone ; for 
the accent should here be on the first syllable, and 
the sound of the second should be close — mischie- 
vous. We also not unfrequently hear people call the 
word c extant,' instead of c extant ; ' but, as the ac- 
cent is always on the first in words of a like forma- 
tion — such as ' constant,' ' distant,' c instant,' &c. — 
there is no good reason why ' extant ' should be 
made an exception. Another word in which the ac- 
cent is often misplaced is ' respited.' Many will say 
' respited,' which is decidedly against good usage. 

In some words the accent still seems to be 



1G0 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 

unsettled. Perhaps we hear the word ' obdurate v 
as often with the accent on the second as on the 
first syllable. Many scholars pronounce the word 
' obdurate,' probably because the u is long in the 
Latin ' durus ; ' but this must also follow the ac- 
cent of similar forms. We always say ' accurate/ 
' indurate, ' ' augurate,' 'saturate,' &c. ; and there- 
fore, by analogy, it should be obdurate. ' 

By many the accent is placed on the second 
syllable of the word ' applicable ; ' but the general 
custom is to lay it on the first, and the best prac- 
tice is to say ' applicable,' and not ' applicable.' 

Another case of wrong tone may be heard in 
the pronunciation of the word 'infinite' We 
still not unfrequently hear in the pulpit, ' infinite 
goodness,' &c. In dissyllables 'ite ' final is some- 
times pronounced long ; as in ' polite,' ' finite,' 
'recite,' &c ; but in words of more than two syl- 
lables the final ' ite ' is, with few exceptions, 
pronounced short. We always (properly) say 
'definite,' 'exquisite,' 'opposite,' 'favourite,' &c. 

Many have special difficulties in the pronuncia- 
tion of certain consonants. The correct sound of 
r is a medium between the strong rough B of 
the Irish, and the feeble indistinct tone given it 
by the London cockney. The Irishman will tell 
you that he is very 'war(u)m' after his ' wor(u)k.' 
But in London, one often hears, instead of 



THE PRONUNCIATION OF WORDS. 161 

1 garden/ c garden,' for ' forth ' ' fimth/ and for 
'card* c caud,' &c. 

Many Englishmen have a difficulty in pronoun- 
cing the rough r, substituting for it the sound of w. 
These say c woom. ' for c room/ ' pt^oduct ' for ' pro- 
duct,' ' wagged ' for i ragged/ &c. This habit, 
unless checked early, is likely to become incurable. 

Others again contract a vicious habit of pro- 
nouncing the r far back in the throat, instead of 
forming it by vibrating the tip of the tongue. 
This is what the French call 'joarler gras.' 

There is one very improper use of r which must 
be here mentioned ; viz. the addition of this letter 
to certain words ending in a. Some pronounce 
1 sofa ' as if written ' sofar.' Also they speak of 
their papar and mammar, &c. It is scarcely neces- 
sary to say that this is a positive vulgarism. 

Nowhere, perhaps, is the perversity of our na- 
ture more evident than in the pronunciation of, 
(1), h silent and h aspirate; and, (2), v and w. 
These sounds are constantly confounded. Many 
pronounce li where it is not required, and leave it 
out where it should be sounded. They will say 
< abit ' for < habit/ ' erd ' for ' herd,' ' ill ' for ' hill,' 
1 old ' for ' hold/ &c. ; and, on the other hand, 
'Aall' for 'all/ < Aodd ' for 'odd,' 'farncle' for 
1 uncle/ &c. 

The same vice exists in the pronunciation of v 

M 



162 A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

and w. It is clear that the speaker can pronounce 
both these letters, but he inveterately persists in 
misplacing them. He will say i weal ' and ' vi- 
negar,' and at the same time, ' Vy do you weep ?' 
These faults are made almost exclusively by igno- 
rant, uneducated people. 

Under this head may be also mentioned the 
incorrect pronunciation of wh initial. By many 
the h is here left out altogether, and these pro- 
nounce the pronoun wliich exactly as if written 
'witch* In Anglo-Saxon, whence all this class of 
words comes, they were spelled, and probably 
pronounced, with the h first — ' hw ; ' and even now, 
if we listen attentively to those who pronounce 
them correctly, we shall always hear the aspirate 
first. We should surely make a difference between 
* who • and * ^(;oo,' ' when ' and ' wen,' ' where ' and 
'wear,' &c. ; and, though it would be incorrect to 
mark the aspirate too roughly, the h in such words 
should be always fairly brought out. 

We also perpetually hear (especially in London) 
words ending in 'mgr' pronounced as if written 
' in ;' as, for example, ' standm,' ' runnm,' ' goin,' 
for 'standm^,' 'rnnnm^' 'going,' &c. In one case a 
h is put for the g. ' Nothing ' is said for ' nothing.' 

There is a disposition in many readers and 
speakers to give a sort of veiled sound to unac- 
cented monosyllables, so that the true pure tone 



THE PRONUNCIATION OF WORDS. 163 

of the vowel is not heard. This is a very common 
fault. By such readers ' for ' is pronounced 6 /w» 
'of is called ' uv,' 'not' l nut,' 'from' 'frum,' 
and ' was ' ' wuz, 1 &c. &c. It should be remem- 
bered that, whether such words be, or be not, 
accented, the sound of the vowel should always be 
full and pure. 

A point of great importance is to always care- 
fully give the true sound to an unaccented vowel 
which begins a word. We should never let emo- 
tion degenerate into 'immotion,' ' emergency ' into 
' z'ramergency,' ' obedience ' into ' ^obedience,' &c. 
-No accent, however, should be placed on these 
syllables, but the initial vowel should be always 
pronounced in its proper and pure sound. 

It is right to be just as careful with vowels 
which are medial and unaccented. We should not 
allow ' monument ' to sound as ' monument,' nor 
must ' calczdate ' be pronounced with the u close. 
This fault often happens with words ending in ' ety ' 
or 'ity.' We hear over and over again, in the pulpit, 
the words ' trim'ty,' ' dignity,' ' society,' &c. pro- 
nounced as if written ' trinity,' ' dignaty,' ' so- 
ciety,' &c. 

The pronunciation of the word 'knowledge,' 
with the o long, is still occasionally heard ; but it 
is now almost universally called ' knowledge ' (to 
rhyme with ' college '). 

M 2 



164 A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

• 

Some pronounce 'haunt/ 'jaunt,' ' taunt/ 'jaun- 
dice/ &c. with the diphthong broad, having the 
same sound as in ' raw ' or ' saw.' But all these 
should rhyme with ' aunt/ which is never pro- 
nounced broad. 

The ending ' He ' of certain adjectives sometimes 
offers a difficulty of pronunciation. Here, in the 
words 'hostile/ 'missile/ 'servile/ 'reptile/ 'pu- 
erile/ and 'volatile " the i has a long sound ; but 
in ' fertile/ ' fragile/ ' futile/ and ' imbecile ' the i 
must be short. 

Some incorrectly give the long sound ' lie ' to 
the broader diphthong ' oil. 9 They call ' oil ' ' lie/ 
' boil ' and ' broil ' ' bile ' and ' brlle/ &c. In the 
age of the poet Pope, these two sounds were pro- 
bably closer to each other than they are now ; for 
he makes c join ' rhyme with ' line :' — 

While expletives their feeble aid do join, 
And ten low words oft creep in one dull line. 

A story is told of some one dining at a tavern 
who was asked by the waiter whether he wished 
to have his sole ' hriled ?' To which he replied 
that he did not care whether it was 'brlled' or 
' biled/ as long as it was not ' spiled ! ! ' 

The words ' fast/ ' past/ ' mast/ and other simi- 
lar combinations are often pronounced either too 
broad or too close. In the provinces we often 



THE PRONUNCIATION OF WOBDS 165 

hear i mobster,' ' fawst,' 'pawst,' and 'caimt,' whilst 
the affected Londoner says 'mester,' 'fest,' 'pest,' &c. 

Neither of the Wo is right, but the proper pro- 
nunciation lies between them. Again, ' put ' 
(which rhymes with 'foot') must not be called 
' put ' (to rhyme with l but '), nor must pulpit be 
called pulpit. Some persist in pronouncing ' co- 
vetous ' as if written ' covetious,' and ' tremen- 
dous ' as ' tremendious ; ' and these are apparently 
equally attached to ' pron<mnciation ' and ' arith- 
metic. ' Lastly, the participle of the verb 'to be ' 
must always sound exactly like the vegetable 
'bean,' and not as a wine-' bin.' 

The letter u, in many words, is really a diph- 
thong, and has the double sound of e + oo. This 
is heard in such words as ' tune,' ' stupid, ' * tube,' 
'produce,' ' solitude, ' ' picture,' &c, which should 
be sounded as if written ' te 4- une,' ' ste + upid,' 
' te -f-ube,' &c, the one part uttered rapidly after 
the other. But many pronounce such words, in- 
correctly, as if written 'toone,' ' stoopid,' 'picter,' 
&c. This is a vicious cockney pronunciation. 

There is no termination we should be more 
careful to pronounce fairly out than ' ow ' final, 
which, when unaccented, frequently degenerates 
into ' er.' The words are properly pronounced 
' widow,' ' window;,' and ' fellow,' &c, and not ' wicl- 
der,' ' winder,' and ' feller ! !' 



166 A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

The word c tobacco ' also is often wrongly pro- 
nounced 'tobaccer.' 

Some, who would be over-refined in their pro- 
nun ciation T make two syllables (instead of one) of 
the words ' sky/ ' kind.' They expand them into 
6 ske-y,' 'key-ind,' &c. This is an absurd affec- 
tation. 

A clear distinct articulation is an essential 
principle of a correct pronunciation ; for, unless 
every syllable be uttered clearly, the word cannot 
nave its proper effect. How often do we hear 
careless readers and speakers push, one mono- 
syllable into another, so as to convey the impres- 
sion that there is but one word, where, in fact, 
there are two. How often do we bear : ' Frin this 
case,' instead of ' For in this case ;' ' Fra time,' for 
'For a time;' ' N 'every occasion,' for ' On every 
occasion ;' ' Tinders J for ' It hinders ! ' &c. 

Special care should be taken to utter unac- 
cented syllables distinctly ; as these are the most 
likely to be neglected. It is this neglect which 
produces such bad pronunciations as ' reg'lar,' 
' sing'lar,' l sim'lar,' and which makes ' extra- 
ordinary,' ' extrordinary ;' 'us^al,' 'uzhal ;' and 
* violent,' ' vilent.' It is from the same cause 
that the d in ' and ' (a word which, is seldom ac- 
cented) is so frequently unheard, especially when 
the following word begins with a vowel, in such 



THE PBONUNCIATION OF WOBDS. 167 

forms as ' He an I,' for ' He and I ;' ' My uncle an 
aunt,' for * my uncle and aunt,' &c. 

The Irish have several peculiarities of pronun- 
ciation, which must be here noticed. 

1. They sound 'ea' (the long e) as 'ay;' 
* please ' they pronounce exactly as ' plays,' and 
' tea' as Hay.' 

2. 'Door' and 'floor' properly rhyme with 
'more' and 'sore,' but the Irish give to these 
words the sound of ' oo ' in ' poor.' 

3. They also pronounce ' catch ' (which exactly 
rhymes with 'match ') as ' ketch ' (to rhyme with 
'fetch'). This is also a vulgar pronunciation in 
England. 

4. They give the short instead of the more open 
sound of u in the words 'pudding,' 'cushion,' 
and 'foot.' They make 'pudding' rhyme with 
' sudden ;' ■ cushion ' with ' rush on ;' and ' foot ' 
with ' but.' They also give the same sound to 
the vowels in ' strove ' and ' drove,' making them 
rhyme with ' love ' and ' dove,' and pronouncing 
them as if they were written ' struv ' and ' druv.' 

5. Another of their peculiarities is to leave out 
the ' g ' in ' strength ' and ' length,' pronouncing 
these words as if they were written ' strenth ' and 
' lenth.' They also omit the ' d ' in pronouncing 
' breadth,' and call it ' breth.' 

6. They give the long sound of 6 e ' to the close 



168 A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

'i 9 in such words as * delicious,' 'malicious,' 
4 vicious,' &c, and call them ' deleecious,' 'malee- 
cious,' ' yeecious.' 

7. They pronounce ' o ' before 'Id ' like the 'ow 9 
in ' how,' and they pronounce ' cold ' and % bold ' 
as if these words rhymed with ' howled ' or 
' growled.' 



SLANG- WOBDS AND AMEEICANISMS. 169 



CHAPTER XIII. 

SLANG W0EDS AND AMERICANISMS. 

No language is, or ever has been, in the strict 
sense of the word, 'pure. All languages are con- 
tinually borrowing and lending — adopting words 
from foreign sources, and contributing from their 
own store to that of others. It is now well known 
that the ancient Greeks borrowed largely from the 
Oriental tongues, and lent words and forms to 
Latin. Latin, again, borrowed from Greek, and 
contributed to form the modern Italian, Spanish, 
and French. The modern German language is 
just now strongly affected by a French influence ; 
and French itself, though for the most part Latin, 
contains many Celtic and not a few Germanic 
words. Spanish, which is in the main Latin, has 
a very considerable admixture of Arabic, brought 
in by the Moors in the eighth century ; and 
English is well known to be made up of Anglo- 
Saxon, Norman, French, and Latin. 



170 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 

But languages are not only subject to these at- 
tacks from without, a process of internal corrup- 
tion is also set up, and appears in various forms. 
One of these may be recognised in the principle of 
contraction. It may be laid down as a rule that 
words, as they grow older, degenerate in meaning 
and contract in form. This contraction probably 
originated in a loose, careless way of speaking, 
which afterwards affected the written language. 
Sometimes a letter or syllable is cut off from the 
beginning of a word ; sometimes one is taken from 
the middle, or from the end. ' Bus ' is now all we 
have left (at any rate, in ordinary conversation) 
of ' omnibus? i Fantasy ' has lost its middle syl- 
lable, and appears as l fancy J and i cab ' does duty 
for ' cabriolet? One conclusion this result enables 
us to draw is that the contracted forms are always 
the more modern. The form ' courtesy ' existed 
before ' curtsy ;' ' procurator ' preceded ' proctor ;' 
and * minute ' was known before ' mite.' Whether 
these contractions are to be regarded favourably 
or otherwise may be a question, but there is no 
doubt that they are all produced by the operation 
of a natural law of language which no human 
power will ever be able to prevent. 

When a word is warped or distorted from its 
original form, either by a vicious or slovenly pro- 
nunciation, or from a mistaken notion of its deri- 



SLAXG WOBDS AND AMEBICANISMS. 171 

vation, it is said to be a corruption. One of these 
corruptions appears in our word ' surgeon/ The 
French ' chirurgien,' from which it immediately 
comes, shows more clearly its Greek origin — ^ap 
(cheir), a hand ; and epyu) (ergo), I work — i.e. a 
hand-worker, or manual operator. But a careless 
pronunciation, probably aided by a natural ten- 
dency to contraction, has caused the word with us 
to dwindle down to ' surgeon.' 

As an illustration of corruption arising from a 
false notion of its derivation, we may take the 
word 'island.' How did the s get into it ? This s 
is not sounded, and yet it must be written. In the 
one word ' island,' there is a mixture of Latin and 
German. The first syllable is of Romance, and 
the second of Teutonic origin. The Latin for 
'island' is 'insula,' from 'in' and 'salo,' the 'salt/ 
i.e. in the salt (sea, understood). The Anglo- 
Saxon word for the same idea was ' ea-land.' Here 
1 ea' means 'water.' This ' eaf or 'e?/,' is found 
in many names of islands, as 'Anglesey,' 'Jersey,' 
' Guernsey,' &c. '_E/a-land,' then meant 'water- 
land,' or 'land surrounded by water.' In the 
earlier editions of 'Paradise Lost,' the word always 
appears written 'iland' (without the s), which 
points more clearly to its Saxon derivation, and is 
nearer in spelling to the modern German — 'Eiland.' 
The ' s ' was afterwards inserted, from a mistaken 



172 A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

notion that the word was of Latin, and not Ger- 
man, origin. 

A false analogy will sometimes give rise to a 
corrnpted form of spelling. The past tense of 
8 can ' was originally ' conde,' not ' couZd ;' and 
the I was afterwards introduced, from the appa- 
rent analogy of the word to ' wouZd,' from ' will/ 
and ' shouZd,' from i shall/ This, then, is a cor- 
ruption. But, though at first incorrect, the I 
must, of course, be now retained. 

Proper names, both of places and persons, have 
suffered a good deal from this influence. "Words 
of this class are most likely to be corrupted, 
because they are most frequently in the mouths of 
the common people. That * Birmingham ' should 
be called 'Brummagem,' ' Cirencester,' ' Siseter,' 
and ' Wavertree, ' ' Wartree, ' is not surprising 
when we remember that these corruptions origin- 
ated with those who had often to pronounce, but 
seldom, if ever, to write these names. But what 
is, perhaps, more strange, many of these corrup- 
tions are now adopted by the upper classes. Thus, 
in all ranks of society, the proper name ' Beau- 
champ ' is now pronounced ' Beecham ;' ' St. 
John ' is called c Sinjon ;' ' Cholmondeley ' is pro- 
nounced c Chumley,' and ' Marjoribanks ' ' March 
banks.' 



SLANG WOBDS AND AMEBIC ANISMS. 173 

Slang Words. 

Among the many signs of the corruption of the 
English language, one, which is not the least re- 
markable, is the prevalent use of slang words and 
phrases. That certain terms should be peculiar 
to certain callings, trades, or professions, may be 
naturally expected, but that these should be ex- 
tended into general conversation, is a corroborative 
proof of the strong liking people now have for any 
thing unusual or out-of-the-way. One very curious 
fact may be here observed. While the style of 
most of our periodical writers soars upwards, and 
affects the lofty and sublime, that of general con- 
versation is the very reverse, and sinks to the low 
and vulgar. 

A difference must be here made between ' cant ' 
and 'slang.' The first signifies the secret lan- 
guage of thieves, beggars, and tramps, by which 
they endeavour to conceal their evil deeds from 
the public. The knowledge and practice of this 
kind of language is confined to the above-named 
fraternities. But slang consists of those vulgar, 
unauthorised terms, which have come into fashion 
during the last eighty or ninety years, and which 
are not confined to one class, but may be now 
heard in almost every grade of society. 

In all trades and professions there are certain 



174 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 

terms peculiar to each, which are properly called 
' technical ; ' these can hardly be denominated 
slang. For example, in the language of actors, a 
'length' signifies forty-two lines of the part each 
has to study for the stage. They say, a part con- 
sists of so many ' lengths.' This, and other such 
terms, are seldom, if ever, heard beyond the circle 
to which they properly belong. But slang is 
found in almost all classes of society. That of 
high life is drawn from various sources. One of 
its phases may be seen in the French words and 
forms which would-be fashionable people so de- 
light in using. To call a breakfast a dejeuner is 
absurd, especially as we have a very good word of 
our own to express that meal. Leaders of fashion 
never speak of the fashionable world ; but always 
of the ' beau monde.' This 'beau monde,' they 
tell us, give i recherches ' entertainments, attended 
by the ' elite ' of society. Lady So- and- So gave a 
' the dansant,' which, of course, ' went off with 
eclat,' &c. &c. Many so-called fashionable ladies 
and gentlemen would, probably, be deeply offended 
to hear such language termed slang ; but an y 
words or forms which are not recognised English 
certainly deserve to be so stigmatised. 

This form of slang is confined chiefly to the 
would-be fashionables, and to those writers of 
very questionable taste, who use what they think 



SLANG WORDS AND AMERICANISMS. 175 

funny and startling expressions in a novel and 
flippant way. Cookery also has given us much 
slang of this sort. If we were to ask, in an 
ordinary English hotel, for ' eotelettes a la jar- 
diniere,' or a ' vol-au-vent a la financiere,' the 
people of the house would probably stare at us ; 
but these and such expressions form the staple of 
the style of many popular novelists. : 

Of parliamentary slang, too, there is no lack of 
examples. Lord Palmerston, and Mr. Disraeli are 
perhaps better known as Pam and Dizzy, than by 
their proper names. A single vote to one can- 
didate at an election is called a ' plumper;' and 
those who have boiled a pot in a house, to qualify 
themselves to vote, are termed ' potwallopers.' 
Among military men, anyone unusually particular 
about his dress or personal appearance, is a 
' dandy ' or a ' swell.' They also call a ' title ' a 
* handle to your name,' and a kind-hearted, good- 
natured fellow is, with them, a ' trump,' or a 'brick.' 

The Universities also have their slang terms. 
The graduates use ' crib ' for a house ; ' deadmen ' 
for empty wine-bottles ; c governor,' or ' relieving- 
officer,' for a father; ' plucked,' for defeated or 
rejected in an examination ; and c row ' for a 
disturbance. 

The Eton and Harrow boys make use among 
themselves of many slang terms, which are not 



176 A BOOK ABOUT WOBBS. 

often heard outside their bounds ; but when they 
return home for the holidays, they frequently 
infect their sisters with some of their strange 
phraseology. A boy will sometimes puzzle his 
sisters at home, by asking them if they do not 
find his i toggery ' absolutely ' stunning ; ' or 
what they think of his ' tile,' or white ' choker ; ' 
adding that they are not yet paid for ; but that 
he supposes the ' governor ' will have to ' stump 
up,' or ' fork out the blunt,' &c. 

Lawyers also have their slang; and this is not 
surprising, when we remember the many oppor- 
tunities they must have of hearing it, from their 
connection with the police courts, and with life in 
its worst phases. With them, taking the benefit 
of the Insolvent Debtors Act, is to be ' white- 
washed ;' and to draw up a fraudulent balance- 
sheet is to c cook ' accounts, &c. 

But of all the forms of slang, the one most 
abundant in variety of terms is the mercantile. 
It has been calculated that there are as many as 
thirty- six vulgar synonyms for the one simple 
word money. The following are a few of them : 
i blunt 9 ' tin, 9 ■ coppers, 9 ' broivns, 9 • shiners, 9 'yellow- 
boys, 9 6 flimsies ' (bank notes) ; c fivers ' (five pound 
notes), &c. &c. In city phraseology, 100,000L 
is called a plum, and one million sterling is a 
marigold. On the Stock Exchange buyers and 



SLANG WOBDS AND AMEB1CANISMS. 177 

sellers for the account are called ' bulls ' and 'bears :' 
a broker who is unable to pay bis debts, is there 
called ' a lame duck ; ■ and, if expelled from the 
house, he is said ' to waddle.' 

But though most of these terms will never form 
a legitimate part of the English language, some 
of them are certainly not considered so vulgar as 
others. It is said that the elegant Lord Chester- 
field was the author of the word ' humbug,' which, 
though it may have been considered as slang in 
his day, can hardly be so called now. Another 
word, 'hoax,' was condemned by Swift as low 
and vulgar, this, too, has made its way ; and is 
now not so revolting to good taste as it probably 
was when first used. Both these words, ' hum- 
bug ' and ' hoax,' are to be found in Dr. Latham's 
edition of Johnson's Dictionary. 

Thackeray immortalised ' snob ' in his cele- 
brated ' papers ; ' and though the word is not to 
be recommended, it must be allowed that it is 
very expressive. Lord Cairns, in a speech in 
the House of Commons, called ' dodge ' ' that 
homely but expressive term.' Nor is ' crusty,' in 
the sense of 'peevish,' so low as it was once 
thought. It has long been a question, whether 
the word 'bamboozle' should be admitted. This 
also is to be found in Latham's Johnson, though 
it is there entered as \ colloquial.' 
N 



178 A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

But though it may be allowed to use some of 
these terms occasionally in familiar discourse, no 
one of any sense or good taste will ever think of 
indulging in slang language, either spoken or 
written. It is, no doubt, a bad sign of the times, 
and much to be deplored, that it is so common. 
Some writers have calculated that there are, at 
least, three thousand slang terms in common use. 
The above are but a few examples of this wide- 
spread corruption. We may regard it, as con- 
cerns our language, in the light of a pest to 
society. It takes a long time to clear the atmo- 
sphere from the baneful influences of certain 
epidemics. Now, the language of every-day con- 
versation is suffering from this infectious disease, 
and it becomes the duty of every Englishman 
who has a proper feeling for his language, to re- 
frain from this evil himself, and to throw in its 
way every possible discouragement. 

Aviericanisms. 
The recklessness with which the Americans use 
the English language bids fair to flood it with many 
new and strange terms. It is very possible that 
some of these words may some day take their places 
as forming part of the legitimate materials of our 
language ; and it is also possible, as the Americans 
themselves sometimes declare, that some of the 



SLANG WORDS AND AMERICANISMS. 179 

words and phrases which are now called American, 
are, in reality, genuine English words which have 
become obsolete in the mother tongue. But, in 
the mean time, they certainly must be regarded 
as interlopers — candidates for an office to which 
they are not yet, if they ever will be, entitled. 

One rather curious explanation has been given 
of the word ' guess.' It is well known that the 
Americans use it in the sense of to know for certain, 
6 1 guess ' is equivalent, in American phraseology, 
to * I know it ' — ' I am sure of it.' Now, it has 
been argued that this is the proper meaning of the 
word — that it is derived from the German ' gewiss,' 
which comes originally from ' wissen,' to know. 
When first imported into America, in the seven- 
teenth century, they say that it had this meaning 
in English — that we in England have since then 
altered the meaning of the word, and that the 
Americans have preserved its original significa- 
tion. Even supposing that this could be proved, 
it does not follow that the American practice is 
the right one ; nor, of course, that we should alter 
our present meaning of the word, and conform to 
the American custom. The fountain-head of the 
English language is in England, and in no other 
country ; and all departures from the English use 
of English words must be looked upon as faults 
against purity of style. 

» 2 



180 A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

Americanisms may be considered under two 
heads — 1st, legitimate English words used in a 
wrong sense ; and, 2nd, words of a new in- 
vention, mutilated or distorted from some known 
or unknown root. In the first class we may place 
the adjective ' tall.' This the Americans use in a 
novel and unrecognised sense. In English it is 
properly applied only to concrete nouns ; as, ' a 
tall man,' or ■ a tall tree/ &c. But, in the United 
States, we continually hear of ' tall talk,' or even 
* a tall smell,' &c. It is not the word that is here 
objected to, but the sense in which it is applied. 
To • raise ' is another of this class, which is con- 
stantly used for 6 to educate,' or 'bring up.' ' Where 
were you raised ? ' is, in America, a very common 
question. Again, the word ' liquor ' is a perfectly 
good English noun ; but what a strange innovation 
is i to liquor ! ' A genuine Yankee says, ' Stranger, 
will you " liquor ? " ' ' Handsome,' ' clever,' and 
1 fix ' are all three genuine English, but ' to play 
handsome on the flute ' is undoubtedly bad English. 
We sometimes qualify persons, but never things, 
as ' clever.' A ' clever ' boy, or a ' clever ' man, 
&c, but never, as in America, a ' clever ' house or 
a ' clever ' cargo. Again, in America a very 
common use of ' to fix ' is ' to prepare,' or ' put in 
order.' This is not sanctioned by English usage. 
But ' a fix,' in the sense of a dilemma or predica- 



SLANG WORDS AND AMERICANISMS. 181 

ment, is condemned by literary men in the United 
States as a vulgarism. 

The other class consists of words wholly unre- 
cognised in English in any sense — in fine, genuine 
Americanisms; such words as 'secesh,' 'ske- 
daddle,' ' recuperate,' ' rowdy,' ' rile,' ' stampede,' 
&c, which can in no sense be said to belong to our 
language. !Nor is it likely that English writers of 
any pretensions to good taste will ever adopt them. 
The Americans call the English ' Britishers ; ' to 
tease or vex anyone is, with them, ' to rile ' him ; 
to make a set speech is to ' orate ; ' a sudden panic 
and flight of soldiers is a ' stampede,' &c. There 
are other words of this class which it would puzzle 
most English writers to explain ; such as i slick,' 
'spry,' ' kedge,' 'boss,' 'absquatulate,' &c. These 
are not English words, and we may pretty confi- 
dently predict that they will never become English. 

There can be little doubt, however, that certain 
expressions now known as Americanisms were, at 
one time, very commonly used in English. Madame 
D'Arblay, as well as other writers of her time, 
has, over and over again, 'mighty fine,' 'mighty 
pretty,' &c. ' Mighty pretty ' is exactly on a par 
with ' uncommon nice.' The one is just as incorrect 
as the other. This is a form of expression con- 
tinually used by American writers. Forty or fifty 
years ago the adjective ' rare ' was commonly used 



182 A BOOK ABOUT W0BD8. 

for ' underdone ' (meat). !Now, though common 
enough in the United States, it is seldom, if ever, 
applied by us in that sense. Some of these pecu- 
liarities appear to be making way in English, in 
spite of our struggles against them. Such are * to 
progress ' for ' to advance,' ' to effectuate ' for ' to 
accomplish,' 'right off,' or 'right away,' for 'at 
once' or ' immediately,' ' laid over' for 'put off,' &c. 

The Americans use ' tiresome * for ' tiring ; ' they 
speak of a 'tiresome' — for a fatiguing — -journey. 
Also a ' good * time is used for a ' pleasant ' time, 
'fall' for 'autumn,' and to 'go-a-head' for 'to 
prosper.' One American word which seems likely 
to establish itself in the English language is, ' a 
loafer.' This would seem to be derived from the 
German 'laufen,' to run, though it has not that 
meaning in the United States, where it signifies 
one who lounges about lazily. 

In America many new terms are the offspring 
of a political excitement, which is sure to occur 
every four years, i.e. as often as a new President 
is elected. On these occasions such words as 
' Copperheads,' ' Ring- tailed Roarers,' ' Know- 
nothings,' ' Fenians,' ' Wolverines,' &c, &c, are 
sure to make their appearance. These words may 
have a meaning for those who invent and use 
them, but to the great majority of Englishmen 
they are altogether a mystery. 



SLAJS 7 G WORDS AND AMERICANISMS. 183 

Language, in the hands of a great poet, has 
been often called 'a flame of fire.' However this 
may be, in the hands of certain American jour- 
nalists it does seem, now and then, very likely to 
burn their own fingers. In the Kew York papers 
we meet with the verb ' to concertize,' which may 
possibly mean to give a succession of concerts. 
We remember hearing that process once called 
' going about matineeing ! ' And there is quite as 
good authority for the one as for the other of these 
expressions. Another unintelligible phrase, drawn 
from the same source, is ' an emergent meeting.' 
This word is never used, in modern English, in a 
concrete sense. We may say an emergent occasion 
or emergent doubts, but not an emergent candidate 
or an emergent character. It is possible that the 
writer meant a meeting called together on an 
emergency. 

The rapid communication established of late 
years between England and the United States has 
brought the two nations into a much closer con- 
nection with each other. This, in a commercial 
or a political view, may be of great advantage to 
both countries. But every advantage has its 
drawback, and it is very doubtful whether this 
condition of things is likely to benefit the English 
language. The Americans are well known to set 
great store by liberty, and of course we have no 



184 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 

right whatever to interfere with their opinions 
concerning principles or forms of political govern- 
ment. But it becomes a serious matter for us 
when they think proper to take liberties with our 
language. They set up for themselves, probably 
by way of showing their independence, new modes 
of spelling ; and they are perpetually introducing 
all sorts of meanings, words, and phrases, none of 
which have the remotest title to be called English. 
In the writings of the late 3ST. P. Willis, we meet with 
such terms as the following : — ' An unletupable 
nature,' 'wideawakeity,' ' plumptitude,' 'pocket- 
ually speaking,' 'betweenity,' and 'go-awayness!' 
In the same gentleman's writings, we occasionally 
come across such elegant forms of expression as 
' whipping creation,' ' flogging Europe,' ' a heap 
of opinions,' ' tarnation quick,' &c. These and all 
such must be looked upon as abortions or defor- 
mities of our language: and no English writer 
who has any respect for his own reputation should 
ever think of countenancing, far less of adopting, 
such monstrosities. 



GENEBAL BEMABKS ON WOBDS, ETC. 185 



CHAPTER XIV. 

GENERAL REMARKS ON WORDS, ETC. 

In old English spelling, we frequently meet with 
y initial, where we now use th ; as in ' ye manners 
and ye custom s,' &c. This error probably arose 
from the blundering of the copyists, who mistook 
one letter for another. Down to the close of the 
reign of Edward III., two characters of the Saxon 
alphabet were in common use, which we have 
now rejected ; tha (p) (th hard), and edh (8) 
(th soft) . The first of these, J?, somewhat resembled 
a y in shape ; and hence the mistake. This is, 
probably, the true explanation of the case, as y 
was, in all these instances, used where we now 
have th. 

Y initial, as indicating a participle or an inten- 
sive meaning, has now become obsolete in English. 
But it lingered in the language till the seventeenth 
century, as may be seen in Milton. * In heaven 
yclept Euphrosyne.' This is the ge initial of the 
modern German, as in ' ^ekannt,' '^ebrochen,' &c. 



186 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 

Our word ' guess,' is supposed to be connected 
with the German 6 gewiss ; ' where the initial ge 
may be referred to the same source. In com- 
paring certain German with English words, we 
may see that this prefix (g or y) has, in most 
cases, fallen off, though in some few words it still 
retains its place. The German ' ffliick,' is in 
English ' luck,' and the German ' #leich ' has 
become with us c like.' Again, ' to glow ' was, in 
Saxon, ' hlowian.' We retain the g in ' gleam,' 
and ' glimpse,' though we lose it in ' light.' The 
same connection may be observed between the 
German ' gem, 9 and the English '^/earn.' 

Many are puzzled when to use ei and when ie in 
the spelling of certain English words, when these 
combinations are pronounced as a long e. The 
rule is, that when a sibilant (c or s) precedes, ei 
is the right spelling ; but that when any other 
consonant comes before, ie should be written. 
Thus, c seize, conceive, celling, deceit,' &c, must 
have ei; whilst 'beZteve, priest, chief, re^n'eve,' &c, 
must be spelled ie. The word ' siege ' is an ex- 
ception ; we here adopt the French spelling. 

It is generally well known that the prefixes ante 
and anti have, in English, each a distinct mean* 
ing. 'Ante ' is the Latin preposition for 'before.' 
It is found in c antedate ' (to date before) ; 
c antechamber ' (a waiting-room before another) ; 



GENERAL REMARKS ON WORDS, ETC. 187 

'antecedent' (going before), &c. 'Anti' is 
originally Greek, and means ' against.' It is 
found in ' antipathy ' (a feeling against) ; ' anti- 
dote ' (a medicine given against) ; i.e. as a pre- 
ventive. But there is one exception to this ex- 
planation ; viz. 'anticipate.' 'Anti,' in this case, 
does not mean ' against,' but beforehand. To 
c anticipate ' is to enjoy or suffer prospectively. 
The Latin i always becomes an e in Trench ; and 
vice versa. This is considered as an organic law 
of transformation. The Latin mini, tibz, sibz, 
in, inter, &c, are in French me, te, se, en, entre. 
On the other hand, the Latin 'implere,' 'fallere,' 
' legere,' ' queerere,' and ' florere,' are in French, 
remplir, 'faillir,' 'lire,' ' querir,' and 'fleurir.' 
This may be seen in ' antichambre,' ' antidater,' &c. ; 
and the English has, in this one case, ' anticipate,' 
adopted the French form of spelling. 

The difference in pronunciation between such 
words as 'home,' and ' some ;' ' bone ' and ' done ; ' 
'alone' and 'gone,' depends on their derivation. 
In these cases, the long 6 corresponds with the 
modern German ' eV The German ' Heim ' is the 
English ' home.' ' Bein ' is in English bone ; 
' allein,' ' alone,' &c, whereas the closer sound 
of o approaches to a closer sound of a or 
o in German. Hence, the root sam (as in 
sammeln), gives the English 'some.' 'Done' is 



188 A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

from 'gethan,' 'come,' from 'kommen,' &c. From 
the same cause, the adverb ' so 9 in English has 
the same long sound as in German ; whereas ' to ' 
and f do, 9 being from ' zu ' and £ thun,' have a closer 
pronunciation. 

It is natural to expect that as the genius of a 
people powerfully influences the spelling of their 
common terms, the same cause should operate in 
that of their proper names, both of persons and 
places. With respect to names of places, there is 
now and then some difficulty. The inhabitants of 
a town or country do not always give it the name 
by which it is known to foreigners. An English 
tourist who is a novice in continental travel, 
arrives at a town he has been accustomed to call 
' Aix 9 or ' Aix-la-Chapelle ;' and he is not a little 
puzzled to hear it named c Aachen. 9 It is doubt- 
ful whether many English would recognise the 
German word ; and yet it is certainly the one 
used by the Prussians from time immemorial. 
There are many other continental towns with 
whose names we English are, in general, not 
familiar; for example, Luttich (Liege), Regens- 
burg (Ratisbon), Bruxelles (Brussels), Kioben- 
havn (Copenhagen), Vliessingen (Flushing), Genf 
(Geneva), &c, &c. 

That these differences should exist was but 
natural in bygone times when there was so scanty 



GENERAL REMARKS ON WORDS, ETC. 189 

a communication between one country and another. 
But nowadays, when one touch of the telegraph 
: should make the whole world akin,' and when 
steamboats and railroads seem to be literally anni- 
hilating both time and space, it is to be regretted 
that some one standard form for the spelling of 
names of places should not be agreed on, which all 
should adopt, and which would be intelligible to 
the whole civilised world. There appears to be 
some probability of the continental states adopt- 
ing a standard coin which shall have a universal 
currency. Why should they not also determine 
on one standard form of spelling for the names of 
all their towns and districts ? The one change 
would not be more difficult than the other. 

One very' striking peculiarity of the English 
language is the extraordinary variety of senses in 
which many of our words, especially those of 
Saxon origin, may be used. A curious instance 
of this variety may be seen in the case of the verb 
'to get.' For example: 'After I got (received) 
your letter; I immediately got (mounted) on 
horseback; and when I got to (reached) Can- 
terbury, I got (procured) a chaise, and pro- 
ceeded to town. But, the rain coming on, I got 
(caught) such a severe cold, that I could not get 
rid of it for some days. When I got home, I 
got up- stairs, and got to bed immediately ; but 



190 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 

the next morning I found I could neither get 
down stairs, get my breakfast, nor get out of doors. 
I was afraid I should never get over this attack/ 
It may be reasonably doubted whether any 
English word of Latin or French origin has half 
so many and such various significations. 

6 To put ' is a verb of unsettled derivation ; but 
it has an endless variety of meanings : and is 
compounded with almost every preposition in the 
language. Latham's edition of Johnson's Dic- 
tionary gives about seventy different senses of this 
one verb, some of which are as follows : ' A man 
puts by money when he saves it up ; or he puts 
away his wife when he divorces her. An insur- 
rection may be put down ; or a man may put down 
his name as a subscriber. A tree puts forth leaves, 
or a man puts into a lottery. He puts off his 
clothes, or he puts off a disagreeable task ; he puts 
out his money at interest ; or he puts out the light 
when he goes to bed ; and he is terribly put out 
when things do not go well with him. He can 
put together his thoughts ; but he cannot put up 
with an insult. It is unpleasant to be put upon ; 
and sometimes very hard to put things to rights. 

The French adverb tres (very), is the Latin 
'trans' (over, or across.) The prefix 'trans' is 
of frequent use in English as in ' transfer,' 'trans- 
fix,' 'transform,' &c. We have adopted the 



GENERAL REMARKS ON WORDS, ETC. 191 

French ' tres ' in only one word ; viz. ' trespass.' 
This signifies either in a physical or moral sense, 
' to pass a boundary.' It is still used in English, 
chiefly as a term of law. 

Some writers on language have objected to the 
order of words generally adopted in certain col- 
loquial expressions. They say that in such phrases 
as ' bred and born,' ' shoes and stockings,' ' coat 
and waistcoat,' &c, we put the cart before the 
horse. They would have us say ' born and bred,' 
' stockings and shoes,' &c. Their argument is, 
that we should put these words in their natural 
order, as to time — that as a man must be born 
before he is bred, the proper order is ' born and 
bred,' and so on, in all other cases of this sort. 
This, however, does not seem to be the right view 
of the matter. In these expressions it should be 
remembered that whatever comes first to our 
knowledge, or makes the deepest impression on 
the mind, is naturally first uttered. True, a man 
must be born before he is bred; but the idea 
conveyed in ' bred ' is first impressed on the 
mind, and therefore ' bred and born ' is the right 
order. Again, we see the shoes ; we can but 
partially see the stockings ; and this is why the 
usual order is adopted. 

Again : we never say ' the sciences and arts ; ' 
but always ' the arts and sciences.' There is here 



192 A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

also, a very good reason for the general practice. 
It must be remembered that the arts were prac- 
tised long before the sciences on which they are 
built were discovered. Practice always precedes 
theory. Language was spoken before grammars 
were written ; music was played and sung before 
the laws of harmony were understood ; and there- 
fore, it is but reasonable that we should put the 
' arts before the sciences.' 

It may seem strange that in addressing an 
audience, the English always say ' Ladies and 
Gentlemen ! ' whereas in France we hear, ' Mes- 
sieurs et Mesdames,' and in Germany, 'Meine 
Herren und Damen.' This order may have been 
adopted at a time when ladies had not the influence 
in society which they now possess. We have not 
the reputation for gallantry which our continental 
neighbours enjoy; and yet, in this instance, we 
may perhaps set them a lesson of politeness. 

Connected with this subject may be mentioned 
that doubling of terms which occurs in our Liturgy 
so frequently, that it may be regarded as a cha- 
racteristic of its style. The compilers of our 
Church Service, probably in their anxiety to make 
the text intelligible even to the commonest under- 
standing, continually put two nouns or two verbs 
together, the second generally explaining the first. 
In these cases we shall find one of the terms of 



GENERAL REMARKS ON WORDS, ETC. 193 

French or Latin, and the other of Saxon deriva- 
tion. This seems to have been done purposely, in 
order that, if any of the congregation, especially 
the less educated, should not understand the one 
term, he should catch the meaning of the other. 
In the early prayers of the ' Morning Service,' we 
have : ' We pray and beseech thee.' We also find 
* We acknowledge and confess,' 6 sins and wicked- 
ness ; ' ' goodness and mercy \ 6 dissemble nor cloak ; ' 
c assemble and meet together ; ' l requisite and neces- 
sary :' 'erred and strayed; 9 ' pardoneth and ah- 
solveth, 9 and many others. 

Certain writers on the English language have 
strongly objected to the lately-introduced practice 
of forming participial adjectives from nouns ; 
especially in the case of the two words ' talented ' 
and ' gifted.' As well, say they, might we call a 
man 'wisdomed,' 'geniused,' or 'knowledged.' 
Coleridge, arguing against the admission of the 
word ' talented ' into English, says : ' only imagine 
other participles so formed, and conceive a man 
being said to be 'penniecl,' ' shillingecl,' and 
' pounded ! ' But though we do not yet use these 
latter terms, Coleridge seems, to have forgotten 
that we very commonly speak of a ' moneyed ' 
man ; and there is very little doubt that these 
adjectives have struck too deep root in the lan- 
guage to be easily eradicated, 
o 



194 A BOOK ABOUT WOBBS. 

The word c reliable, 9 a comparatively late intro- 
duction, is another of those against which the 
purists have raised a loud outcry. They argue 
that as we do not rely a man, but rely on a man, 
therefore the word, if used at all, should be ' reli- 
on&ble, 9 and not ' reliable.' But here is one of the 
many cases in which philosophy must give way to 
custom ; and, in spite of the above objection, this 
word is too firmly fixed in the language to be 
easily driven out. The real difference between 
' reliable ' and ' trustworthy ' is, that the former 
applies more properly to things, such as news, in- 
formation, &c, and the latter to persons. A ' trust- 
worthy ' messenger would probably bring us ' reli- 
able ' information. But, whatever concession we 
may make in the case of ' reliable,' we should resist, 
with all our might, the introduction of l reliability.' 

Certain laws of transformation are found to 
operate in the Romance languages. One of these 
is, that Latin or Italian words beginning with / 
appear in Spanish with an h initial. Thus ' filius,' 
'figlio' (a son), is, in Spanish, £ hijo.' By the 
same law the Latin ' femina ' (a woman) becomes, 
in Spanish ' hembra,' ' formosus ' (beautiful) is 
1 ^ermoso,' ' Fabulari,' Italian 'favellare' (to talk) 
is, in Spanish, 'hablar.' ' Faba ' (a bean) is, in 
Spanish, 'haba.' The Latin 'Facere,' Italian 
' fare ' (to do), becomes ' Aacer,' filum (thread) is 
t hilo/ and folium (a leaf) 'hoja,' &c. 



GEXEEAZ REMARKS OX W0RB8, ETC. 195 



The Spanish word ' hidalgo ' (a nobleman) is a 
contraction of ' hijo cValgo ' (films alicujus), lite- 
rally 'the son of somebody, ' i.e., of importance. 

It may also be observed that the combination ct 
in Latin is found in Italian tt (or f), and in Spanish 
cli. This may be seen in the following cases : — 



Lat. 

Famis . 


Ital. 

. fafro . 


Span. 
. hecho 


Lat. 

Dicftis 


Ital. 
detto . 


Span. 
. dicho 


Sanc/us 


. sanfo . 


. s&ncko 


Directs 


dint to 


. devecho 



Lat. 


Ital. 


Span. 


Planus 


. piano . 


. Ifano 


Menus 


. pieno . 


. Ihno 



Again, pi in Latin becomes pi in Italian and 11 in 
Spanish, as in the following : — 

Lat. Ital. Span. 

Jtfuvia . piov% . . lluviii 
P 7 anctus piaoato . Z/anto 

Affinities also exist between certain letters of the 
alphabet ; and this relationship may be often seen 
in words transferred from one language to another. 
For example, the labials, or lip-letters, are fre- 
quently interchanged. Many English words be- 
ginning with an F are derived from Latin (or 
French) words having a P initial. This is exem- 
plified in the following list : — 



Latin. 


French. 


German. 






English. 


Pater . . 


. pexe , . 


. Pater . . . /ather 


Piscis . . 


. j9oisson . 


. Eisch 






fish 


Pes-pedis 


. /vied . . 


. Fuss 






foot 


Paucus . 


. pen 


. — 






few 


Per . . 


. pour . . 


. five 






for 


Pellis . 


. peau . . 


.Fell 






fell 


Pullus . 


. _potile . . 


. Vogel 






fowl 


Pugnus . 


. . ^oignee . 


. Faust 






fist, &e. 



196 



A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 



Another affinity may be observed between G and 
W. Many French, words beginning with a G 
guttural represent that letter in English by a W. 
This may be seen in the following cases : — 



French. 


English. 


French. 


English. 


#ages 


. wages 


guede . , 


woad 


#agner 


. win 


gaiepe 


. wasp 


(ralles 


. Wales 


guerdon 


(re)ward 


</arant 


. warrant 


guerre . 


war 


gave . 


. be(ware) 


^aetter . 


wait 


^arde 


. . ward 


yueule . 


well 


^arenne 


. warren 


<7uichet . 


. wicket 


#ater . 


. . waste 


6ruillaume 


. JFilliam 


faultier 


. Walter 


guise 


. (like)wise 


</aufre . 


. wafer 







This connection between the G and W may be 
also seen at the end of many English compared 
with German words. 



German. 


English. 


German. 


English. 


Sor^e 


. sorrow 


bie^en . 


. bow 


Eol^en . 


. follow 


heili^en . 


. hallow; 


moreen . 


. morrow 


tra^en . 


. draw 


bor^en . 


. borrow 


le^en 


. law, &c. 



A relationship is also to be seen between C gut- 
tural and H aspirate. The C hard initial in the 
Romance languages is represented in the Teutonic 
by an H. For example : — 

German. English. 

. jHimd . . . farand 

. ZTiigel. . . till 

. fomdert . . hundred 

. Hevz . . . ^eart 



Latin. 


French. 


canis . . 


. chien . 


colli S . . 


. colline 


centum 


. cent 


cor . . . 


. cceur . 



GENERAL REMARKS ON WORDS, ETC. 197 



Latin. 


French. 


G-erman. 


English. 


casa . . 


cliez . 


. iTaus . 


. house 


cornu . 


COT . . 


. ZTorn . 


. . hoTn 


cannabis . 


chanvre 


. ZTanf . 


. ^emp 


carpo . . 


— 


. .Herbst 


. harvest 


calx . . 


— 


. Mel . 


. heel 


cutis . . 


— 


. ZZaut . 


. hide, &c 



Tliis connection between c (or &) and h appears 
in other cases. A primitive English word ending 
in a guttural (g or h) often produces derivatives 
in which the guttural is softened into tch, as in : — 



ma&e. . 


. match 


wrec^; . 


. wretch 


wa&e . . 


. watch 


di^ . . 


. ditch 


ba&e . . 


. "batch 


stic& . . 


. stitch 


fla&e . 


. Qitch 


croo& . 


. crutch, &c. 



Some of our English pronouns have this ending 
(ch), where it is a contraction of the word 'like.' 
Thus :— 

Scottish. Saxon. English, 

who-like . whilk .... hwlyc . . which 

all-like . . ilk selc . . . each 

so-like . . solch. (Germ.) . swylc . . such, &c. 

Another phenomenon of a certain class of words 
is the use of an initial s, to give them an intensive 
meaning. This may be observed in the following 
cases : — 



knap . . 


. snap 


deep 


. . steep 


lash . . 


. slash 


nip 


. . snip 


mash . . 


. smash 


rip 


. . strip 


plash 


. splash 


din 


. . stun 


quash 


. squash 


pike 


. . spike- 



198 



A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 



lack . 
lain . 
lay . 
melt . 


. . slack 
. slain 

. . slay 
. smelt 


wipe . 
light . 
pout . 
hoot . 


. sweep 
. . slight 

. spout 
. . shout 


meet . 


. smite 


rub . 


. scrub 


reach 


. stretch 


tumble 


. stumble 


well . 


. swell 


cut . 


. scud 



A large class of English, words beginning with 
s followed by a consonant are derived from French, 
where they are spelled with an e or es initial; 



clS i- 



French. 


English. 


French. 


English, 


ecarlate . 


scarlet 


espion . 


• spy 


echafaud 


. scaffold 


epinard . 


. spinach 


echantillon 


scantling 


epine 


. spine 


echarfe . 


scarf 


esprit . 


. spirit 


espace . 


. space 


ecrivain . 


. scrivener 


etrange . 


strange 


echorcher 


. scorch 


escadron 


. squadron 


ecole . . 


. school 


esclave . 


. slave 


eponge . 


. sponge 


etage . . 


. stage 


epoux . 


. spouse 


etat . . 


. state 


estomac . 


. stomach 


etendard 


. standard 


etroit 


. strait 


espece . 


. species 







According to some French philologists, when 
the s in any of these French words is pronounced, 
it is a sign that the word is of later introduction. 

It may be observed of the letter h (initial) that 
it is never mute in Germanic words, and that 
whenever it is mate in English, the word is of 
French derivation. 



GENEBAL BEMABKS ON WOEDS, ETC. 199 



Thus we have : — 




French (mute). 


German (aspirate). 


Honneur . honour 


hart . . . Aard 


Heritier . . ^eir 


Herz . . . Aeart 


Honnete . Aonest 


Heide . . Aeath 


Heure . . ^our 


Hitze . . Aeat 


Hurneur. . humour 


Hoffnung . Aope, &c 



The h initial was prefixed to many Saxon words 
where it has now disappeared from the English. 
This was chiefly before the liquids Z, n, and r. 



Saxon. 


English. 


Saxon. 


English. 


m&t. . 


. loaf 


Hnecca . 


. neck 


iHaford . 


. lord 


Hnaegan 


. neigh 


JHrafn . 


. raven 


Hnut . 


. nut 


#lsedl . 


. ladle 


Hlud . 


. loud 


^TLeopan 


. leap 


Hring . 


. ring 


JSlsedan . 


. lead 


Hlosian . 


. lose, &c 



The German z initial often corresponds with the 
English t ; as : — 



German. 


English. 


zahlen 


. toll 


zahm. 


. tame 


Zahn. 


. tooth 


zehn . 


. ten 


zerren 


. fear 


Zinn . 


. tin 


Zimmer 


. timber 


Zeit . 


. . tide 



German. 


English. 


zu 


. to 


Zoll . 


. . toll 


Zunge 


. tongue 


Zug . 


. tug 


Zweig . 


. twig 


Z willing 


. twin 


zwischen 


. (between 


zwolf 


. twelve, &c. 



The German t initial corresponds with the 
English d; as: — 



German. 



Zandeln 



English. 


German. 


English. 


. day 


Teufel . 


. ^evil 


. handle 


Thai . . 


. dale 



200 



A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 



German. 


Engiish. 


German. 


Englisl 


Tinz . . 


. finance 


That. 


. deed 


Taub . . 


. deaf 


Thau 


. dew 


Taube . 


. dove 


Theil 


. deal 


Tauch . 


. ^uck 


Thier 


. dee? 


Teich . 


. dough 


Thun 


. do, &c 



Some are puzzled when to spell the ending 
' ledge ' and when ' lege.' The following rule may- 
be easily remembered: — Monosyllables and the 
word ' acknowledge ' are spelled with a d ; there- 
fore 'ledge,' 'fledge,' 'pledge,' 'sedge,' ' sledge/ and 
' acknowledge ' retain that letter ; whereas ' sacri- 
lege,' ' privilege,' ' allege,' and ' college ' must 
reject it. 

Some years ago, there was a sharp controversy 
concerning the spelling of the word — whether it 
should be ' rem- deer ' or ' ram- deer.' The dic- 
tionaries differed, many even giving both forms. 
It was found in Johnson 'rain-deer,' which of 
course settled the dispute. In spite of this decision, 
there is no doubt that the word is generally spelled 
'rein-deer.' The Saxon form was ' hrana-deor,' 
i.e. 'the running animal.' 

Some lament that we have adopted the French 
form of the word ' programme.' They say that by 
analogy it ought to be written 'program.' We 
have ' anagram,' ' diagram,' ' epigram,' &c. ; and 
why not ' program ? ' But the former is now the 
established spelling ; and, till some daring innovator 



GENERAL REMARKS ON WORDS, ETC. 201 

adopt the new form, and his example be gene- 
rally followed, we must be content to use the old 
. one. 

A few years ago, a new word was wanted to 
express ' a message sent by the telegraph ; ' various 
forms were suggested, but at last the word ' tele- 
gram ' was adopted. This was another argument 
in favour of 4 program.' 

The verb ' to repair,' in the sense of c to make 
better ' or 'to improve,' is from the Latin ' re- 
parare,' through the French 'reparer ;' but when 
it means ' to go back home ' it is from the Latin 
1 repatriare,' to return to your country. 

The second syllable in ' impair ' is in no way 
connected with the above. £ Impair ' is from the 
French i emjpirer,' i to make worse.' 



202 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 



CHAPTER XV. 

GENEEAL EEMAEKS ON WOEDS, ETC. — Continued. 

In the periodical and light literature of the day, 
we frequently meet with forms of language which 
have been expressively called ' slipshod English.' 
These are of various kinds — uncertain reference, 
superfluous words, incompatible terms, ungram- 
matical forms, &c. &c. 

Of the first class may be quoted the tailor's 
advertisement, in which it was stated that 
' Gentlemen's materials are made up, and waited 
on at their own houses,' where there is a glo- 
rious uncertainty as to who or what may be 
waited on. 

The following is of the same nature : — In an 
examination in the House of Commons, in 1809, a 
member said that ' the witness had been ordered 
to withdraw from the bar, in consequence of 
being intoxicated by the motion of an honourable 
member.' The word l intoxicated ' was here, per- 



GENERAL REMARKS ON WORDS, ETC, 203 

haps, the right word ; but it was certainly not in 
the right place. 

A word is often written which has no function 
to perform in the sentence, and therefore no busi- 
ness on the paper. These are superfluous words ; 
they occupy space, but, instead of assisting, they 
rather clog the sense of the passage. The often- 
used expression, ' final completion,' is a case in 
point. Every ' completion ' is ' final ; ' the idea 
of ' final ' is involved in the word ' completion,' 
and therefore this is a wrong expression. 

Another of these superabundant forms is where 
we find ' universal ' and ' all ' brought into the 
same construction. A man is sometimes said to 
be ' universally ' beloved by ' all ' his friends. 
Here either ' universally ' or ' all ' should be taken 
out. If the love for him is ' universal,' of course 
1 all ' love him ; and the converse is equally true. 

Sometimes words are found together which con- 
tradict each other. Of this class of faults we may 
quote the not unfrequent form c further backwards.' 
6 Further ' means more in advance, and ' back- 
wards ' has a directly contrary meaning. It is 
impossible to go ' further ' and, at the same time, 
1 backwards,' and therefore the two words should 
never be used together. 

' Either ' and ' neither ' cannot be properly ap- 
plied to more than two persons or things. Speaking 



204 A BOOK ABOUT WOBBS. 

of three or four people, it is incorrect to say that 
' neither ' of them is clever, though we may say 
that ' none,' or 'no one,' of them is clever. Nor 
would it be good grammar to say, ' either of the 
six children may go ; ' we must here say ' any one.' 

' All of them.' This is a form which some critics 
have attacked, and not without reason. They say 
that ' of here means ' out of;' that it corresponds 
exactly with the Latin preposition e, or ex, and 
that therefore the expression must be incorrect. 
We do not take ' all of them,' but we take ' them 
all.' We may correctly say one, two, three, &c, 
or most of them, but when there is question of 
all, no preposition should be used. 

' Equanimity of mind.' As equanimity means 
evenness of mind, why should c of mind ' be re- 
peated ? ' Anxiety of mind ' is, of course, open to 
the same objection. 

6 Incorrect orthography' The fault in this very 
common expression arises from the idea that or- 
thography ' means merely spelling (good or bad), 
whereas the true meaning of the word is c correct 
spelling.' ISTow, spelling cannot be correct and at 
the same time incorrect, and therefore the two 
terms are incompatible. We may say ' incorrect 
spelling,' but we must not say ' incorrect ortho- 
graphy.' 

c A confirmed invalid' What is this ? one who 



GENERAL REMARKS ON WORDS, ETC. 205 

is strengthened in his weakness ? There is cer- 
tainly here a contradiction, for no weakness can 
be strong. 

' Old neivs ' is another contradictory form, where 
the terms are incompatible with each other. It 
may be placed in the same class with ' enjoying 
bad health.' 

It is inaccurate to say that a man's ' defects are 
improved' A defect means the want of some good 
quality, and to ' improve ' means ' to make better.' 
Wants may be ' decreased ' or ' supplied,' but they 
cannot be made better ; and, therefore, the two 
terms should not be used together. 

It is a common error to use 6 quantity ' for 
' number.' The former can only be said of a col- 
lection or mass. A c quantity ' of meat or a 
c quantity ' of milk is good English, but not a quan- 
tity of pens or books, &c. To separate individual 
objects we must apply ' number,' but to a collected 
mass ' quantity.' We may say a ' quantity ' of 
wood, but it must be a c number ' of faggots. 

In many cases the wrong preposition is used ; 
and, indeed, there are few writers or speakers who 
are invariably correct in this respect. The very 
common fault, 'different to,' we need hardly stop 
to inquire into, but we often find equally wrong 
forms which pass unnoticed. Occasionally we 
meet with ' to disagree from J though in general 



206 A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

the form used is 'to disagree with. 9 Here the 
' dis ' in ' disagree ' and the preposition ' with ' 
seem to pull two ways. Which, then, is right — to 
disagree from or with ? The proper phrase is to 
' assent to 9 and to ' dissent from ; ' and if the latter 
is correct, why not also ' to disagree from ? ' 

As it is admitted that ' different to 9 is wrong, 
on the same principle, ' averse to ' must be wrong. 
~No one can go two ways at once. The a in 
' averse ' certainly means ' from ; ' and therefore 
the word shonld be followed by ''from 9 and not ' to 9 
The first is already adopted by many good writers. 
The conjunction ' than ' should not be used 
except after a comparative adjective. ' Sooner 
than ; ' ' better than ; ' ' rather than,' &c, are 
correct ; but ' scarcely had he uttered these words 
than 9 is bad English. ' Hardly had he attained 
his majority than 9 is equally wrong. For ' than 9 
we should here use 'when. 9 ' But ' should not be 
used for ' than,' as, l no sooner had he finished his 
work hut. 9 

Another common mistake is to use ' except' for 
' unless.' The former is a preposition, and must be 
followed not by a proposition, but by a noun or 
pronoun. It is bad . grammar to say ' no one 
should aspire to this situation, except he is com- 
petent to fulfil its duties.' (Here, we should read 
' unless ' for ' except.') 



GENEBAL BEMABKS ON WOBDS, ETC. 207 

' Like ' is also frequently confounded with. ' as.' 
The former is a preposition, and should not be 
used as a conjunction. ' Do you write like I do? ' 
is wrong. It should be ' as (not like) I do.' 

' Notwithstanding he thought so,' is bad English. 
We should here use 'although.' 'Notwithstand- 
ing ' is a preposition, and is followed by its object. 
We say correctly, ' notwithstanding his objections,' 
but not properly, i notwithstanding he objected.' 

' But ' is often redundant after the word ' doubt.' 
We continually meet with ' I have no doubt but 
that,' &c. This is a wrong form : the ' but ' should 
be omitted. 

As an example of a loose sentence ; i.e. where 
the connection of the parts is not sufficiently 
clear, the following advertisement of a hair-dresser 
may be quoted : — 

' Seven lessons in hair- dressing may be had for 
one guinea, which (?) being imparted on a system 
entirely new, will enable any one so instructed to 
give the most complete satisfaction ! ' 

The Anglo-Saxon ' tid ' meant ' time ' (compare 
the German ' Zeit') ; whence to ' betide ' means to 
happen in time. The ' tide ' is the time at which 
the water rises and falls. 'Tidy,' also, in old 
English, signified properly ' timely.' 

In old English, we meet with the form ' ton,' 
which is for ' the one ; ' and this may probably 



208 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 

account for 't'other,' or ' the t'other,' which is, 
in fact, a contraction of ' that other.' But ' t'other ' 
is now accounted a vulgarism. 

There is some difference of practice in the 
use of the article (a, an). The rule is, that 
' an ' must be used before a vowel, or h mute. 
This is, in general, a good rule ; but there 
is one vowel, which must be sometimes con- 
sidered an exception, viz. ' u.' It is right to 
say 'an apple,' 'an evil,' 'an idler,' and 'an 
orange ; ' but before u we must pause ; for here 
there is a double practice. Now, this vowel has 
two sounds ; open, as in ' union ; ' and close, 
as in ' ugly.' Before the long sound, we should 
use the article ' a ; ' as 'a unit,' ' a union,' a 
uniform, &c. But before the short sound of ' u,' 
the article ' an ' should be used ; as 'an uncle,' 
' an ugly object,' &c. Many good writers, how- 
ever, use ' an ' even before a long u. We often 
meet with ' an united family,' ' an universal prac- 
tice,' &c. The question is here one of harmony ; 
and the best practice seems to be, to adopt the 
softer sound. No one ever thinks of saying or 
writing ' an youth,' or ' an yew tree ; ' and yet 
the sound in ' an uniform,' or ' an universe,' is 
precisely the same, and of course equally harsh. 

Another case belonging to this question is the 
use of the article in the frequently- seen expression 



GENERAL REMARKS ON WORDS, ETC, 209 

' such an one.' This form is disagreeably harsh, 
and unmusical. We might as well say : ' such an 
woman,' or * such an wonder.' It is true there 
are authorities for both these forms — * such a one,' 
and ' such an one ; ' but in a case of this sort, we 
had better adopt the more harmonious form ; good 
taste and a delicate ear will direct us to ' such a 
one,' rather than ' such an one.' 

It has been remarked that there is a strong ten- 
dency in English to get rid of inflections. Many 
of these were found in old English which have 
now fallen off. The old infinitive-ending en is 
now altogether gone, though some adjectives in 
en still remain ; viz. those which denote material, 
such as ' golden,' ' earthen,' c oaten,' &c. We had 
at one time ' rosen,' 'silvern,' 'tinnen,' 'boxen,' 
and many others. These are now gone ; and there 
seems to be a prevalent disposition to cut off the 
endings of those which remain. Instead of ' a 
golden watch,' we now say ' a gold watch,' using 
the noun for the adjective. In the same way, we 
have ' earthworks ' for ' earthen works ; ' though 
we still keep ' earthenware.' Many of these ad- 
jectives in en still hold their ground, though most 
of those which are retained have lost a part of 
their sense. ' Brazen ' has now only a secondary 
meaning; and stands for 'bold' or 'impudent.' 
In a concrete sense, the noun is used instead of 
P 



210 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 

the adjective. We say a 'brazen face/ for an 
1 impudent face ; ' but ' a brass knob,' or c a brass 
candlestick.' Again : we have l a golden rule,' in 
a secondary ; but a ' gold ' ring in a primary 
sense. 

The word ' pigmy ' — derived from the Greek 
TrvyjjLtj, the fisfc — was first spelled ' p^/gmy.' It 
meant one whose stature was no higher than from 
the elbow to the fist. The change from y to i 
was probably caused by the dislike of the printers 
to y in the middle of a word. But it has here as 
good a right to its place as the y in ' h^mn,' 
or i t?/pe.' It is, however, gone ; and we must 
submit. 

Hundreds of words might be cited which have 
been brought into their present forms by the in- 
fluence of corruption. The now generally received 
explanation of c Rotten Row ' is, that it is a corrup- 
tion of ' Route du Roi,' originally the private road 
used by King William III. when going from Picca- 
dilly to Kensington. The old form ' diamant ' was 
preferable to the more modern £ diamond,' because it 
told its story more clearly. It was an inversion 
of ' adamant,' the untameable, or invincible, so 
called because it is the hardest of stones, and 
cannot be cut except by one of its own species. 

The modern spelling of the word ' height ' is 
a corruption. We have ' width,' from ' wide ; ' 



GENEBAL BEMABKS ON WOBDS, ETC. 211 

1 length,' from ' long ;' and ' breads,' from ' broad.' 
Why, then, not 'highth,' from ' high ? ' In the 
writings of the seventeenth century we meet with 
various spellings of this word. It is found 'highth ' 
in the first edition of ' Paradise Lost ; ' and also 
'heigth' and ' heygth.' Now the inversion of Jit 
for tli has corrupted it into ' heigJit ; ' and so, for 
the present, it will probably remain. The d in 
'admiral' appears to be a corruption. All our 
dictionaries give the derivation of this word from 
the Arabic 'amir,' or 'emir,' a lord, or com- 
mander. Neither the French ' amiral,' nor the 
Italian ' ammiraglio,' has the d. Milton writes 
the word ' ammiral : ' 

the tallest pine 
Hewn on Norwegian hills, to be the mast 
Of some great ammiral, — 

though in this passage, the word means a ship, 
and not its commander. Mr. Wedge wood says 
that, in many cases in Arabic, the article is placed 
after the noun; and that the ad initial is a 
mere corruption of the first syllable of ' amir ' or 
' emir.' 

It was a fanciful etymology which gave us the 
word ' Tartar.' The incorrect spelling ' Tartars ' 
for ' Tatars ' occurs at the same time with the 
appearance of the Mongols in Europe, in the 
thirteenth century ; and was probably introduced 
p2 



212 A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

by the superstitious monks and writers who, 
struck with the seeming analogy between ' Tatar ' 
and Tartarus (the hell of the ancients), believed 
that these ferocious invaders had come from the 
infernal regions. 

We are told by some writers that there are 
between 2,000 and 3,000 words in the English 
language, for which there is no recognised stan- 
dard of spelling. Though this number is probably 
exaggerated, there are, no doubt, many in this 
condition ; and it naturally becomes a question 
which of two forms is to be preferred. Here, we 
should be at least consistent ; we should hold to 
the one, and altogether reject the other. 

The two forms, i chemist ' and ' chymist ' arose 
from the word having a disputed derivation ; but 
the first is now received as correct. Of course, its 
derivatives will therefore be spelled ' chemical,' 
1 chemistry,' &c. 

There was, at one time, a confusion between 
' choir ' and ' quire.' The second word has no 
connection, except in sound, with the first, which 
is from the Latin 'chorus,' through the French 
' ehceur.' As c quire,' in the sense of a number 
singing together, is now obsolete, so is c quirister,' 
which must be spelled ' chorister.' 

There are two forms — 'coit,' and ' quoit.' The 
derivation of this word is somewhat obscure ; but 



GENERAL REMARKS ON WORDS, ETC. 213 

if, as some suggest, it is connected with cut, the 
form ' coit ' is preferable to the other. Another 
argument in favour of this form is that the word 
is always pronounced as if beginning with a c 
hard, or Jc ; and not as if with qu. 

There has been a rather sharp controversy 
lately concerning the two forms ' diocess ' and 
' diocese.' The 'Times' adopts 'diocess.' Dr. 
Latham says under the word, ' diocese, frequently 
but improperly, diocess.' Webster says, 'the 
orthography of "diocess" is opposed to the deri- 
vation, and is against the best English usage.' 
There is little doubt that ' diocess ' is the older, 
and ' diocese ' the newer form of the word : and 
there is also little doubt, in spite of the ' Times,' 
that ' diocese ' is the proper form. 

Between ' intire ' and ' entire ' there is still a 
divided practice. The word is a contraction of 
the Latin 'integer,' which will account for the 
initial i. But it comes to us directly from the 
French ' entier.' So that ' entire ' will probably 
supplant ' intire,' though we still have ' Barclay 
and Co.'s intire. ,' 

There are two forms of the word — ' referable,' 
and 'referable.' These are both in common use, 
and both are given in the dictionaries ; but the 
second, ' referable,' is the proper form. There 
was no Latin adjective ' referibilis.' Our word is 



214 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 

a later formation, where a in such cases is always 
used rather than i ; and, therefore, it is better 
spelled * referable.' Besides, this form is in analogy 
with ' preferable/ ' inferable,' &c. 

Some still write ' sirname ' incorrectly for ' sur- 
name,' probably from an idea that the word means 
sire-name, or a name received from a sire (father) . 
But its real meaning is an added name ; one name 
added to another. It is from the French ' sur- 
nom,' and should be always spelled ' surname.' 

Between a * Serjeant '-at-law, and a military 
1 sergeant ' there is this difference : that the first 
must be written with a j, and the second with a g. 
The word is derived from the Latin ' serviens,' and 
means, in both cases, one who serves ; but the 
words are spelled somewhat differently, to make a 
distinction in their application. 

A difference should be made between ' story' 
and ' storey.' The first means an account of facts, 
and is a contraction of ' history.' It is a history 
on a small scale. But ' storey ' is a contraction of 
' stagery,' and means the landing in a house ; as 
in ' first storey,' ' second storey,' &c. Of course, 
the plural form of the first word should be ' stories,' 
and of the second, ' storeys.' 






MISCELLANEOUS DERIVATIONS. 215 



CHAPTER XVI. 

MISCELLANEOUS DERIVATIONS OF WORDS. 

Abominable. This word is from the Latin 
verb ' abominor,' which, again is from ab and 
omen. The word involves the idea of what is 
in a religious sense profane and detestable ; in 
fine, of evil omen. Milton always uses it in refer- 
ence to devilish, profane or idolatrous objects. It 
was once thought that the true etymology of 
'abominable' was from ab (from), and homo (a 
man) ; and that its proper meaning was repugnant 
to human nature. This, though not the right 
derivation, may account for the w^ord being still 
often used in that sense. 

Absurd, which has the sense of ' foolish,' ' in- 
consistent,' &c, is from the Latin ' absurdus,' 
compounded of ' ab ' (from), and ' surdus ' (deaf). 
An ' absurd ' answer is one you would probably 
get ' from a deaf ' man ; i.e. one wholly irrelevant 
to the question. 



216 A BOOK ABOUT WOBBS. 

Academy. This word owes its origin to the name 
of a grove near Athens, am^/i/a, where Plato and 
other philosophers nsed to give lectures to their 
followers. Hence this name has been frequently 
given to institutions for instruction. 

Ajar. The Anglo-Saxon ' cerre ' is a turn ; from 
' eerran,' to turn ; hence a door is said to be * ajar/ 
when it is on the turn. From the same root we 
have to chum milk ; i.e. to turn it about. Also a 
char- woman — one who does a c turn ' of work. 
Compare the German 'kehren.' 

Archipelago. This name was given by the 
modern Greeks to the ^Egean Sea. It is a cor- 
ruption of aywg wiXayoQ (Hagios pelagos), ' Holy 
Sea.' 

Ban, to proclaim or denounce. The original 
meaning is connected with ' banner, 7 a flag, 
or standard ; in feudal times, the rallying point 
to which retainers flocked to do battle for their 
seigneur. The word is supposed to be connected 
with ' bend,' in the sense of to make a sign. 
c Bandit,' a proclaimed outlaw, is from the same 
source, as also * Banns,' i.e. a proclamation of 
marriage. 

Bankrupt. The following circumstances gave. 
rise to this word. It was the custom in the twelfth 
and thirteenth centuries for the Lombard merchants 
to expose their wares for sale in the market-place, 



MISCELLANEOUS DERIVATIONS. 217 

on benches. Whenever any one of their number 
failed in his business, or could not pay his debts, 
all the other merchants set upon him, drove him 
from the market, and broke his bench to pieces. 
' Banco rotto ' is the Italian for bench-broken. 
Hence came the word, which passed into French 
in the form ' banqueroute ; ' and into English as 
'bankrupt.' 

Barley-sugar. Has nothing whatever to do 
with the grain c barley' The first part of the 
word is here an inversion — and at the same time 
a corruption of the French brule (burnt). The 
whole word was originally ' sucre brule ' (burnt 
sugar), and it is still sometimes called 'sugar- 
barley.' 

Birmingham. The name of an Anglo-Saxon 
family was often formed by adding ing to that of 
its founder ; ing meaning ' son of/ or ' descended 
from.' The estate or residence was called the 
' ham,' or home ; and the name was formed by 
adding this syllable ham, to the family name. 
Thus, the family of a Saxon leader named ' Beorm ' 
possessed a residence in Mercia, to which they 
gave the name of 'Beorm-ing-ham,' or the home 
of the sons of Beorm ; now corrupted into ' Bir- 
mingham.' Many places in England still retain 
the names originally given them by Anglo-Saxon 
families ; as c Nottingham,' ' Walsingham,' &c. 



218 A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

Blackguard was a name first given to the 
lowest menials engaged in the dirty work of a 
kitchen or household, as scullion, link-boy, coal- 
carrier, &c. It was afterwards applied to any 
loose, idle vagabonds. 

Book. In the same way as the Latin liber 
(the bark of a tree), was afterwards used in the 
sense of a book, because it was a material used 
for writing on ; so our word booh comes from the 
Saxon ' boc ' (a beech tree) . In a rude, uncivilised 
age, it was the custom to form alphabetical letters 
with the pliable twigs of the beech. To this day, 
the German for c to spell ' is c buchstabiren ' (from 
' Buch ' (beech), and ' stab' (a staff or twig); i.e. 
to put the beech- staves properly together. 

Booty. The Anglo-Saxon ' bet ' meant ' better ' ; 
and ' betan ' was to amend or make better. Thus 
a ' booty ' would be that which betters us ; ' boot- 
less ' is ' without effect or improvement,' and ' so 
much to boot,' is so much to our advantage. 

Burglar. This is from the Low Latin l burgi- 
latro,' a house-robber; one who breaks into a 
house with a felonious intent. The old French 
'lerre' is a contraction of the Latin 'latro,' a 
robber. 

Cabal. The usually received etymology of this 
word is that it is formed of the initials of the 
names of the five ministers of Charles II. who 



MISCELLANEOUS DERIVATIONS. 219 

succeeded to the government of this country after 
the banishment of Lord Clarendon — Clifford, Ash- 
ley, Buckingham, Arlington, and Lauderdale. 
But Mr. Wedgewood suggests that it comes from 
* Cabala,' or the mysterious tradition delivered to 
Moses with the Law, on Mount Sinai, and handed 
down by the Jews from father to son. c Hence,' 
he says, * Cabal came to signify a secret machi- 
nation or plotting.' Lord Macaulay favours the 
first explanation. 

Caitiff. This English word presents us with 
a curious lesson. It is, in fact, only another form 
of ' captive,' though it has come to signify a wretch 
capable of perpetrating the darkest crimes. The 
Latin ' captivus,' a prisoner, is the source of the 
modern Italian * cattivo,' which has the general 
sense of ' bad ; ' and the French * chetif,' which 
signifies 'mean,' 'pitiful,' or 'insignificant,' is 
another form of the same word. All these vari- 
eties point to the same conclusion, viz. the moral 
degradation naturally produced in the human 
mind by captivity. 

Candidate. In ancient Rome it was the custom 
for those who sued for offices of state, to be 
dressed in white robes. Hence came the word 
' candidate,' which is derived from the Latin ' can- 
didus ' (white) ; and which signifies literally — 
' dressed in white.' 



220 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS, 

Carat is from the Arabic ' kaura,' a bean, 
which, varies very little in weight. It was intro- 
duced into India as a standard weight for diamonds. 
The Arabic words are goorl, girat, and gurat ; cor- 
rupted into ' carat? 

Cardinal. Certain dignitaries of the Church 
of Rome are called ' cardinals.' This word is 
derived from the Latin ' cardo,' a hinge. One of 
the favourite comparisons by which the Church of 
Rome sought to set herself up above all the other 
churches of Christendom, was that it was the 
hinge upon which all the rest of the church, as 
the door, turned, or depended. Hence the higher 
clergy were called cardinals, as being closely con- 
nected with the Pope, who was the ' cardo J or 
hinge of them all. Certain virtues are also called 
' cardinal/ as being those upon which all other 
virtues turn. 

Caricature. This is literally an overloaded 
or over-charged representation. It is derived 
from the Italian ' caricarej to load. In a carica- 
ture, a resemblance is retained; but the details 
are exaggerated. 

Carnival is from the Latin i caro ' (flesh), 
and ' vale ' (farewell). It signifies literally ' fare- 
well to flesh ; ' and is applied to the holiday held 
in Roman Catholic countries the week before Lent. 
It may be considered as a feast before a fast. 



MISCELLANEOUS DERIVATIONS. 221 

Caudle. The derivation of this word is yet 
undecided. Latham gives it as a corruption of 
1 cordial ; ' while Wedge wood derives it from the 
French * chaudeau. ' (from chattel, hot), a warm 
comforting drink for the sick. 

Chancel. This means the part of a church 
enclosed or railed off from the body of the build- 
ing by lattice- work (Latin, cancelli) . Chancellors 
were originally law officers who stood at the rail- 
ings (ad cancellos) in a court of justice, and re- 
ceived the petitions of the suitors. The verb ' to 
cancel ' is from the same source. To * cancel ' a 
name is to efface it by drawing a pen across it in 
diagonal lines, so as to make lattice-work over it. 

Cheat. From the Latin verb 'cadere,' to fall, 
came the old French ' eschoir,' and hence ' es- 
cheats.' This is a law-term signifying lands 
which fall to the lord by forfeiture, or by the 
death of a tenant. The king's 'escheators ' were 
officers appointed to look after the king's c es- 
cheats ; ' and as they had many opportunities of 
practising fraud, and were much complained of on 
that score, the term escheator (or cheater) came 
to signify any fraudulent person. This is the 
origin of the present meaning of the verb 4 to 
cheat.' 

Church. This word, though consisting of only 
one syllable, has in it the elements of two roots. 



222 A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

It is of Greek origin, and signifies literally ' the 
Lord's House.' Kvpwg (Kyrios) is the Greek 
for ' Lord ; ' and oikoc; (oikos) means, in that lan- 
guage, ' house,' or ' dwelling.' Putting these two 
roots together we get ' Kyri-oik.' This, by a 
natural law would contract into ' kyrik.' In 
Scotch we find ' kirk,' and in German ' Kirche.' 
In English the guttural is softened, and the word 
appears as c church? 

Comedy. This is derived, according to Aris- 
totle, from KiojjLT] (kome), a village ; andw7/) (ode), 
a song. It was at first a song of joy of the vil- 
lagers at the gathering in of the harvest — a sort 
of harvest-home. This was a lighter and gayer 
song, and did not partake of the more solemn, and 
at first, religious tone of the tragedy. Others 
derive comedy from kuj/jloc, and §52 y/, ' a song of 
revellers.' 

Companion. Two derivations are given of 
this word. 1. From the French * canipagne,' 
which is from the Latin ' cum,' and ' pagus ' a 
village, or district. By this explanation it would 
mean one of those who belonged to the same dis- 
trict. 2. From the Low Latin ' companium,' an 
association; formed from ' cum ' (with), and 
'panis' (bread). This conveys the meaning of 
bread- sharer. Mr. Wedgewood favours the second 
explanation. 



MISCELLANEOUS DERIVATIONS. 223 

Comrade. There is no doubt that this word, 
which is in French ' camarade,' is derived from 
the Italian 'camera,' afterwards in French i cham- 
bre,' and that it was first applied to those who 
lived together in the same room (chambre). 

Cordwainer. During the Moorish government 
of southern Spain, the city of Cordova be- 
came celebrated for the manufacture of leather. 
Hence, the French ' cordovan ' meant originally 
the leather of Cordova. Hence, also, the English 
' cordwainer,' and the French ' cordovanier ' (now 
contracted into ' cordonnier,') a worker in leather. 

Counterpane. The middle-age Latin ' culcita ' 
meant a mattrass. This in French was ' coulte,' 
and in English became c quilt.' ' Culcita puncta ' 
meant a quilt punctured with stitches, so as to 
form a pattern. This, in French, became l coulte- 
pointe ; ' afterwards converted into ' conte-pointe,' 
and 'contre-pointe.' Hence at length came the 
English l counter-pane . ' 

Country Dance. Some think that this really 
means a dance of country people. But the pro- 
bable derivation is the French contre, 'over against,' 
or 'opposite to,' which has been corrupted into 
' country ; ' and the whole word means a dance in 
which the partners stand opposite to (contre) each 
other. 

Curmudgeon. It was suggested by Menage 



224 A BOOK ABOUT WOBBS. 

that this word is from the French * cceur,' and 
' mediant,' wicked heart. But the more probable 
derivation is from ' corn-mudgin.' Corn-nmdgins 
were dealers in corn, who were unpopular, as 
it was thought that they hoarded, and kept up 
the price of corn, to serve their own interests. 
Hence the word came to signify an avaricious 
monopolist. 

Delirious comes from the Latin compound ' de ' 
(from), and 'lira' (a furrow, or ridge). The 
word is a metaphor, taken from those who deviate 
from the straight line, or furrow, in ploughing. 
It is now applied to those who rove in mind, or 
are disordered in intellect. 

Ecstasy. This word has the meaning of vio- 
lent excitement. It is now generally used in 
the sense of some pleasurable feeling, though it 
was formerly much more extended in signification. 
It is derived from the Greek ek (out), and gtchtiq 
(a standing) ; i.e. literally t a standing out.' It is 
curious that in the Saxon part of our language, 
there is a corresponding phrase which exactly ex- 
plains this word; viz. ' to he beside oneself.' We 
commonly say, ' He was beside himself with joy.' 
In a state of ' ecstasy,' the soul may be said to leap 
out, as it were, and stand forth from the body. 

Fanatic is from the Latiu ' fanum,' a temple. 
This adjective was at first applied to people 



MISCELLANEOUS DERIVATIONS. 225 

affected by a strong religious feeling — possessed 
by an incontrollable enthusiasm. 

Favour. Ladies in their most brilliant attire 
were generally spectators of the tournaments of 
the Middle Ages. They were, severally, inte- 
rested in the knights, and encouraged them, by 
looks, tokens, or gestures, to do their duty man- 
fully. They frequently threw them a portion of 
their dress, such as a sleeve, mantle, or bow 
of ribbons, called a favour, which the knight 
wore on his armour, and forfeited if he was van- 
quished. From this custom has descended, to our 
days, the fashion of distributing bows of ribbon, 
still called favours, to the guests and attendants at 
a wedding. 

Faubourg. This is considered by French philo- 
logists, to be a corruption of 'forsoourg.' The 
old French 'fors' (now Jiors), is from the Latin 
' foras,' ' outside,' or 'abroad.' Faubourg (the 
present orthography) would naturally lead to 
the idea that it meant ' false town,' or ' unreal 
town : ' whereas it means and literally corresponds 
with the English ' suburb,' i.e. a district or place 
situated c foras burgi,' outside the town. 

Feud. According to M. Guizot, the word 6 feo- 
dum ' appears for the first time in a charter of 
Charles Le Gros, 884. The etymology is uncertain ; 
but two suggestions have been made, either of 
Q 



226 A BOOK ABOUT WOJRDS. 

which is probable. Some think the word is con- 
nected with the Latin c fides,' faith, and means 
' land given/ for which the holder was bound in 
fidelity to his suzerain lord. According to others, 
' feod ' is of Germanic origin ; and is derived from 
1 fe ' (or fee) — still used in English in the sense 
of a recompense — and ' od ' an old Germanic root 
now obsolete, meaning ' goods, ' or ' property.' 
Thus, ' feod ' would mean reward-land. M. Guizot 
favours the second explanation. 

Foolscap. By a statute of Queen Anne cer- 
tain duties were imposed on all paper imported 
from abroad. Among the various sorts of paper 
herein mentioned is the Genoa 'foolscap.' This 
word is a corruption of the Italian 'foglio capo,' a 
chief, or full-sized, sheet of paper. Foglio (leaf), 
is from the Latin ' folium,' which appears in French 
as ' feuille.' 

Garment is a contraction of the French c garne- 
ment,' from the verb ' garnir,' to decorate or 
garnish. It is now restricted to the meaning of 
' garnishing ' or decorating the body by dress. 

Gew-gaw. The derivation of this word still re- 
mains doubtful, though many suggestions have 
been made of its origin. May it not be from the 
French ' jou-jou,' a plaything ? 

Gooseberry. Dr. Johnson, whose etymologies 
are not always to be depended on, especially 



MISCELLANEOUS DEBIVATIONS. 227 

those of Saxon words, explains the word ' goose- 
berry ' — i a fruit eaten as a sance for goose.' But 
it is, in truth, a corruption of the German ' kraus- 
beere,' or c krautelbeere,' from 'kraus ' or ' gorse,' 
' crisp ; ' and the fruit is so called from the upright 
hairs with which it is covered. So that c goose- 
berry,' is really, a corruption of ' gorseberry.' But 
what is gooseberry fool ? ' Fool ' is here also a 
corruption — it is from the French 'foule,' ' mashed' 
or £ crushed,' and the whole word means ' crushed 
gooseberries.' 

Gossip. ' Sib ' was an Anglo-Saxon word, 
meaning ' relation,' and the term ' gossip ' was 
first applied to the relation between godfathers 
and godmothers in baptism, so that a gossip (or 
God-sib), meant a relation in God (i.e. in a re- 
ligious sense). It has now passed into the sense 
of a great chatterer or talker ; but the above ex- 
planation accounts for its origin. 

Hammercloth. In the olden time, before there 
was any hotel accommodation in England for 
travellers, it was the custom with those going on 
a journey to fill a ' hanaper ' (or hamper) with 
provisions, and throw a cloth over it, to conceal 
its somewhat homely appearance. This was 
placed in front of the carriage, and served as a 
seat for the driver. Thus, from ' hanaper- cloth,' 
came ' hammer- cloth.' 

q2 



228 . A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

Harbour. The two roots of this compound word 
are the Anglo-Saxon ' here/ an army ; and ' beor- 
gan,' to protect. A harbour is then, literally, a 
place to protect an army. 

Heir-loom. From the Saxon 'geloma,' tools, 
utensils, or pieces of furniture. These in law are 
called personal chattels, and when they descended 
in inheritance from father to son, they were called 
' heir-looms.' 

Homage is derived from the French 4 homme,' 
a man. The ceremony of ' homage ' was, in the 
Middle Ages, a solemn declaration of the vassal 
that he would be the man (homme) of his future 
lord. He knelt down ; placed both his hands 
between those of his lord; with his head bare, 
and without his arms ; and then swore that he 
would use his hands and his weapons, when they 
should be restored to him, in his future lord's 
service. 

Hurry. 'Here' was the Anglo-Saxon for an 
army (compare the German 'Heer') ; and ' herian ' 
was to act as an army, viz. to ravage, despoil, 
and plunder a country. Hence come the English 
words ' hurry,' ' harry,' and ' harrow.' 

Hustings is from the Saxon * Hus ' (a house) 
and * Ting ' (a council) . This was the name given 
to the municipal court of the City of London, 
where probably the elections were originally con- 



MISCELLANEOUS DERIVATIONS. 229 

ducted. Now, the word signifies the booths where 
speeches are made at an election. 

Jeopardy. This is from the Middle- Age Latin ; 
4 jocus partitns ' (French, ' jeu-parti'), i.e. a divided 
game, where the chances are even — a choice of 
alternatives. 

Kickshaws is a corruption of the French 4 quelque 
chose ; ' something so disguised by cooking as 
scarcely to be recognised. 

Late is from the Anglo-Saxon 4 laetan ; ' to let, 
or allow. ' Lazy ' is from the same root, as is also 
4 loiter.' He who ' loiters ' must be 4 late.' 

Lout. This comes from the Anglo-Saxon verb 
'lutian,' to bow. It was originally applied to a 
cringing menial, who was continually bowing before 
his master ; and as in this case, the act was pro- 
bably performed in a clownish, ungraceful way, 
the word thus came to signify an awkward, clumsy 
fellow. 

Menial. This adjective is derived from the 
old French noun 4 mesnie • (or meny), which, in 
the Middle Ages, meant the servants or household 
of some noble or chieftain taken collectively. A 
menial occupation was, originally, one performed 
by some member of the 4 mesnie.' It is from this 
last that the English expression 4 a many ' is de- 
rived. It was at first 4 a mesnie/ or a collective 
number of servants. 



230 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 

Meringue. Shakspere says that ' great events 
from trivial causes spring.' But we may some- 
times reverse this saying, and say with equal 
truth, that trivial effects spring from great causes. 
It may appear strange that the French could not 
hit upon a more dignified way of commemorating 
a victory than by giving its name to a then newly 
invented cake, but such is the fact. The battle of 
Marengo produced the ' Meringue ' ! ! 

Miscreant, which is from the French mecreant 
(or mecroyant), was first used in the times of 
the Crusades, and then signified simply an un- 
believer. But disbelief in Christianity being at 
that time regarded as the worst of crimes, the 
word soon passed into the more general sense of a 
wicked wretch. 

Mouchard. — In the latter part of the sixteenth 
century, when the French Government was on 
the look-out for heretics, a certain Antoine Mouchy, 
a doctor of the Sorbonne and canon of Noyon, 
made himself notorious by his zeal against the 
Reformers. The secret spies he employed in 
detecting the heretics were called, from his name, 
Mouchards, & word which now signifies the basest 
and meanest of betrayers. 

MowitelanJc. — This means a quack medicine 
vendor, so called from the Italian ' montare ' (to 
mount) and 'banco' (a bench). Literally, one 



MISCELLANEOUS DERIVATIONS. 231 

who mounts a bench, to boast of bis infallible skill 
in curing diseases. 

Naught. 6 Augbt ' is a contraction of tbe Saxon 
a wiht (or, a whit), any creature or thing. 
6 Naught ' is the negative of ' aught,' and means 
1 not a whit.' The adjective ' naughty ' is now 
confined in its application to the behaviour of 
children ; but it was once much more extensively 
used. 

Palace. This term, which is now used in a 
general sense for a king's residence, was first 
applied to a dwelling of the Roman Emperor 
Nero. One of the seven hills of Rome was called 
'Palatinus,' from Pales, a pastoral deity whose 
festival was there celebrated on April 21 as the 
birthday of Rome. Under Nero, all the private 
houses on the c collis Palatinus ' were pulled down 
to make room for the Emperor's new residence. 
This house was called ' Palatium,' and it after- 
wards became the type of all the palaces of the 
kings and emperors of Europe. 

Palfrey. — This is a contraction of the French 
' par le frein ' (by the bridle). It is a horse used 
on state occasions, and distinguished from the 
war horse — a horse led by the bridle, i mene par 
le frein. ,' 

Pamphlet. — It is supposed that this word is 
a contraction of the French c par un filet.' It 



232 A BOOK ABOUT WOBBS. 

means a small book, not bound, but held together 
by a thread — c tenu jpar un filet. 9 

Pavilion is derived directly from the French 
1 pavilion,' where it is used in the sense of a tent 
or flag. But the origin of the word is the Latin 
'papilio,' a butterfly. Tents or flags would be 
so called, because of their flapping about as a 
butterfly. 

Person. This word was originally a thea- 
trical term, and properly meant an actor. The 
theatres of the ancient Romans were built so large 
as to contain between 30,000 and 40,000 people. 
ISTow it was impossible for the actors to make 
themselves heard through so large a space ; and 
they therefore wore masks, inside of which, close 
to the aperture for the mouth, was a certain me- 
chanical contrivance, which made the voice more 
sonorous, so that the actors' words could be heard 
in all parts of the theatre. The Latin for a mask 
is ' persona,' so called because the voice sounded 
through it. Per is in Latin, ' through ;' and son is 
the root of the verb ' sonare ' to sound. By a 
common figure of speech, the word meaning 
* mask ' (persona) was afterwards applied to its 
wearer; and thus 'persona' came to signify 
' actor.' This was its original, theatrical meaning. 
But, as all human beings are, in one sense, actors 
— as they all have a part to play on the stage of life, 



MISCELLANEOUS DEBIVATIONS. 233 

the word ' person ' was afterwards used in a general 
sense to signify any one man or woman. In one 
special case, it appears in the form ' parson/ to 
designate the ' chief person/ or priest, of a parish. 
In this sense, however, the word is now falling 
into disuse. 

Pet. The French adjective 'petit' (small) is 
derived from the Latin participle, ' petitus,' sought 
after. From this root came the English word 
' pet.' i My pet ' means literally, ' my sought 
after or desired one.' ' Petty ' is also from the 
French ' petit ; ' but it has degenerated : and is 
now always used in a bad sense, as in a ' petty 
action.' 

Pert is nothing else than the old French ' aperte ' 
(from the Latin apertus) open, public, without 
concealment. The sense has now degenerated 
into ' saucy ' or 'impudent.' 'Malapert' had that 
meaning from the beginning ; but this word is 
now seldom used. ' Pert ' seems to have taken 
its place. 

Poltroon. The derivation of this word is still 
undecided ; but the following account of it has 
been offered. In the later ages of the Roman 
empire, the ancient valour of the citizens had so 
degenerated that, rather than fight, many actually 
cut off their right thumbs, in order to disable 
themselves from using the pike. The Latin for 



234 A BOOK ABOUT WOBBS. 

1 thumb ' is c pollex ' ; and ' truncus ' means, in that 
language, ' maimed ' or ' mutilated.' These two 
roots put together give us 6 pol-troon ' from ' pol- 
liee truncus,' i.e. with the thumb cut off. As this 
was done with a cowardly motive, the word very 
naturally came to signify a coward, a meaning 
which it retains to this day. 

Pontiff (Lat. pontifex). There are various 
etymologies of this word. Varro derives it from 
'pons/ a bridge, and 'facere,' to make or build. 
He says that the pontiffs had built the 'pons 
sublicius ' (over the Tiber) ; and afterwards re- 
stored it, that sacrifices might be performed on 
each side of the river. It is now used only as a 
title of the Pope of Rome. 

Porpoise. This word is from the French pore 
(hog) and poisson (fish) ; so called from its re- 
semblance to a hog. Spenser spells the word 
' porcpisces.' It is singular that, in this case, the 
French should have adopted the Teutonic word 
c marsouin ' (mereswine) ; while in English it is 
known by its French name — ' porc-poisson.' 

Post. The apparently contradictory meanings 
of this word may give it a peculiar interest. 
In its original sense, it means something placed ; 
from the Latin participle ' positum ' ; as, for ex- 
ample, a pillar fixed in the street. But we also 
hear of post haste, post horses, &c, and, in these 



MISCELLANEOUS DERIVATIONS. 235 

cases, tlie meaning seems directly opposed to the 
etymology. When letters, parcels, &c. were first 
transmitted from place to place, stations (or posts) 
were placed at intervals from each other, and 
letters were rapidly passed on by messengers from 
one station to the next, and so on, across the 
whole country. This was called post haste ; i.e. 
in such haste as was used when letters were sent 
in the above-described way. 

Punch. The well-known beverage called punch 
is said to be derived from the Hindostani panch 
— five. It means a mixture of five ingredients : 
1. spirit, 2. water, 3. sugar, 4. acid, and 5. es- 
sential oil of lemon. 

Puny. This is an English form of the French 
puis-ne), or (de)puis-ne (Latin, post natus), born 
since. It is in contradistinction to the French 
aine (ante-natus) elder or born before ; and now 
signifies weak, ill-conditioned in growth. A 
junior judge is still, in legal phrase, a puisne judge. 

Quack. The whole word is in German ' qualk- 
salber,' of which c quack ' is a contraction. ' To 
quack ' is to talk boastfully — to make a great 
fuss ; and ' salber ' is from salve, something to 
heal ; so that quacksalber may be explained, one 
who talks noisily and fussily about his healing 
medicines. 

Quandary. This is a corruption of the French 



236 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 

'qu'en dirai-(je) ? ' ' what shall I say of it? 5 
It expresses that condition of doubt or uncer- 
tainty in which such a question would be naturally 
asked. 

Ragout. This French noun, which may be 
now considered as naturalised in English, is a 
contraction of the Italian 'niiro gusto,' 'wonderful 
taste.' 

Raiment is derived from ' to array,' and is a 
contraction for 'arrayment.' 

Ransack. This word is founded in Swedish, 
'ransacka,' where it means to search a house for 
stolen goods. It is compounded of the O.N. 
c rami,' a house, and Sw. c soka,' to seek. 

Religion is from the Latin 're' (back), and 
'ligare,' Ho bind;' literally, that which binds 
back, or restrains us from the commission of sin. 

Right and Wrong.. The first of these words, 
in a secondary sense, has a meaning analogous to 
proceeding in a straight line, the Latin c rectus,' 
from which it is derived, having that meaning. 
The French ' droit ' is from £ directus.' Our word 
'wrong' is only another form of f wrung,' i. e. 
' twisted ' (out of the right line) . It may be ob- 
served, by the way, that the French ' tort * 
(wrong) is from the Latin ' tortus, ' twisted ; so 
that the same principle operates in both cases. 

Romance. A name given to certain European 



MISCELLANEOUS DERIVATIONS. 237 

languages (especially the Provencal), which grew 
out of the old Roman or Latin, The Trou- 
badours, or poets, who wrote in the Provencal 
language being notorious for their exaggerated 
sentiment, the word has come to mean a wildly 
imaginative fiction ; and it is even sometimes 
used as a softened expression for a falsehood. 

Salary.. This is from the Latin ' salarium,' 
According to Pliny, it is derived from ' sal ' (salt), 
that being the most necessary article for the 
maintenance of life. In the reign of the Emperor 
Augustus it comprised the provisions as well as 
the pay of the Roman military officers. From 
8 salary ' probably came the expression, - he is not 
worth his salt,' i.e. his pay, or wages. 

Sarcasm. — The root of this word is the Greek 
<7<X|o£ (sarx) flesh, from which comes aapKafa 
(sarcazo) 'I tear flesh.' The derivation throws 
a strong light on its true meaning — a tearing 
of the flesh. But it is now used only in a secondary 
sense. 

Saunter. It is said that, in the time of the 
Crusades, many foreign mendicants overran Eng- 
land. They professed to be on their return from 
a pilgrimage to the ' Sainte Terre :' and the 
popular voice gave these vagabonds the name of 
' saunterers.' 

Sedition is from the Latin 'se' (apart), and 



u 



238 A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

4 itio,' a going (from ' eo ' I go). Sedition, then, 
means ' a going apart,' i.e. a departure from sub- 
mission to the laws. It now implies a violent 
opposition to government, and involves the idea 
of commotion and disturbance of the peace. 

Seneschal. This is a compound of the Latin 
* senex' (old) and the Gothic c scalco ' (a servant). 
The seneschal of a castle was, in the Middle Ages, 
an aged servant, whose duty it was to keep the 
keys, take care of the house, and superintend the 
feasts and domestic ceremonies. ' Seneschal • 
means c aged servant,' as ' marshal ' ('mara scalco') 
means, literally, 'horse servant.' 

Sincere. One suggestion concerning the ety- 
mology of this word is, that it was compounded 
from the Latin 'sine ' (without), and ' cera ' (wax) 
• — e without wax.' In this view, the term is re- 
ferred to a practice of the ancient sculptors, who, 
when they found a flaw in the marble of which 
they were forming a statue, filled up the place 
with wax, in order to conceal the defect. Those 
pieces of statuary that had no flaws were, conse- 
quently, ' sine cera ' (without wax) ; and the word 
4 sincere ' thus acquired its present meaning ; viz. 
perfect, whole, without flaw. Many etymologists, 
however, reject this derivation, and the origin of 
the word is still considered as doubtful. 

Simple. Whether * sincere ' be or be not from 



MISCELLANEOUS DERIVATIONS. 239 

c sine cera,' it is generally allowed that c simple ' 
is from the Latin ' sine/ and ' plico,' I fold ; i.e. 
literally, ' without fold.' The Latin ' simplex,' 
'duplex,' 'triplex,' &c. are in English, 'simple,' 
* dou&Ze,' c triple,' &c. 

Soldier. This English word comes directly 
from the French 'soldat,' which, again, is from the 
Latin ' solidus,' Italian 'soldo,' and French 'solde,' 
' sou ' (pay) — the name of a coin which a man re- 
ceived as his pay for fighting. The word origin- 
ally meant one who performed military service, 
not in fulfilment of the feudal obligation, but upon 
contract, and for stipulated pay. 

Somerset. The corruption of a word often 
obscures its derivation; as is the case here. This 
is originally from the Italian ' soprasalto,' an over- 
leap. The French corrupted the word into ' sobre- 
sault,' and the English to ' somersault,' and then 
to ' somerset.' But it should be always spelled 
1 somersault.' It properly means a lea/p in which 
the heels are thrown over the head. 

Spouse. The origin of this word may be traced 
to the Greek verb G$ivvv\ii (sbennumi), 'I pour 
out ; ' which passed into Latin as i spondeo ' 
(sponsus). The Latin verb came to signify 'to 
make a contract ' or promise. In making con- 
tracts, it was a custom with the Romans to jpour 
out libations to the gods. Hence, any one who 



240 A BOOK ABOUT WOBDS. 

contracted an engagement (especially in the case 
of marriage) was called ' sponsus,' i.e. ' engaged,' 
or ' betrothed.' The modern Italians softened the 
word into ' sposo,' and the French transformed it 
into ' epoux.' Then it passed into English in the 
form of ' sponse.' Godfathers and godmothers are 
called c sponsors,' for the same reason ; because 
they engage, or bind themselves, in certain con- 
tingencies, to instruct a child in his religious 
duties. 

Stalwart is often written, in early English, 
'stal-ward.' It is from the Anglo-Saxon 'stal- 
weorth,' i.e. worth stealing, or taking. The word 
is now used in the sense of strong-limbed, noble, 
manly in appearance. 

Stationer. The word 'statio' meant, in the 
Middle Ages, ' a stall,' or ' shop,' and was at last 
used for a shop where books and paper were sold. 
Hence came ' stationarius] one who held a station, 
or who dealt in books, paper, &c. 

Tawdry. According to the legend, St. Ethel- 
dreda (Saint Audrey) is said to have died of 
a quinsy, which she considered sent her as a 
judgment for her vanity concerning necklaces in 
her youth. Hence 'tawdry ' has been explained 
as the necklace of St. Audrey. The word now 
qualifies any silly, frivolous ornamentation j fine 
and showy, but without taste or elegance. 



MISCELLANOUS DERIVATIONS. 241 

Thing. There is a close connection between 
the noun 'thing' and the verb 'to think.' In 
fact, the one is derived from the other. For what 
is a thing ? It is whatever causes us to think. 
There is the same connection between the Latin 
noun 'res ' and the verb 'reor.' We may also ob- 
serve that the Italian ' cosa ' and the French 
* chose ' are formed by the same analogy. They 
both mean ' cause,' i. e. cause of ideas or thoughts. 

Tragedy. It was a custom with the Greek 
peasants, when they gathered in the vintage, to 
recite or sing an ode in honour of Bacchus, their 
tutelary god of wine ; and on this solemn occa- 
sion, by way of propitiating that divinity, they 
sacrificed to him a he-goat. The Greek for a ' he- 
goat ' is Tpdyog ; and a song (or ode) is, in that 
language, «£>) (ode). Putting together rpayog and 
whrj we get ' tragcodia' (tragedy) ; literally, ' the 
song of the goat,' or, the song sung when the goat 
was sacrificed to Bacchus. Various additions 
were afterwards made, such as dialogue, chorus, 
&c, till at length the drama appeared in its 
present form. 

Wiseacre. This word has, really, no connec- 
tion whatever with ' acre.' The two roots, ' wise ' 
and ' acre,' are clearly incompatible. How then, 
did they come together ? The word is, both in 
spelling and pronunciation, a corruption of the 



242 A BOOK ABOUT WORDS. 

German i weissager,' a ' wise-say er,' or sayer of 
wise maxims, or precepts. 

Wont. The Anglo- Saxon 'wunian' meant to 
dwell, which naturally involved the idea of being 
accnstomed to ; for we mnst become accnstomed 
to the dwelling in which we live. ' He was 
wont to say,' means he was in the habit of saying. 
Compare the German c wohnen ' and l Wohnung.' 

Zero. The name given to the arithmetical 
1 ' is said to be a contraction of the Italian 
1 zephiro,' a zephyr; i.e. a mere nothing; having 
no more substance than a breeze, or breath of air. 
It is also sometimes called a i cipher,' from the 
Arabic i cifr,' empty. 



LONDON : PEINTED BY 

SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW- STREET SQUARE 

AND PARLIAMENT STREET 



Works by the same Author. 



ENGLISH GEAMMAE PRACTICE ; or, Exercises on the 

Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody of the English Language. Adapted to every 
form of Tuition. Revised Edition, in fcp. 8vo. price 45. 6rf. 



'A volume of exercises which seem 
to have been selected with a ripe judg- 
ment/ Spectator. 

'This treatise contains not merely 
the ordinary grammatical rudiments, 
but exercises in punctuation, prosody, 
and versification. It will be found very 
useful, especially to learners who are 
somewhat advanced.' 

Weekly Dispatch. 

* So far as we have examined this 
work, its nomenclature seems much 
more simple than that of the majority 
of English grammars published of late 
years. The chief feature, however, of 
Mr. Graham's book is the abundance of 
its exercises ; and these can be worked 
out after each rule, so that the young 
learner can really confirm his own 
progress step by step. There are also 
appended copious exercises in prosody 
and versification— a branch of English 
grammar not usually studied in schools 
as thoroughly as its importance deserves/ 
Critic 

'Not only are the rules here ex- 
pressed in very simple and intelligible 
language, but each is immediately fol- 
lowed by an exercise, in which the prin- 
ciple on which the rule rests is illustrated 
and enforced by repeated examples. This 
is, we think, the only method of making 
a clear impression upon a mind of average 
capacity ; and even where unusually good 
abilities make its adoption not absolutely 
necessary, it may be employed with con- 
siderable advantage in stimulating the 
pupil's zeal by enabling him to feel at 
every successful application of the prin- 
ciple involved a very encouraging sense 

of progress The most novel feature 

in Mr. Graham's book is a treatise on 
prosody, which, though a very necessary 
part of English grammar, we do not 
remember to have seen in any previous 
work of this kind/ Parthenon. 



' Mr. Graham's volume of grammar- 
practice aims at being more practical 
than grammars usually are. The rules 
are concise ; the exercises full and nu- 
merous ; there are sections on correct 
spelling, and others on the logical 
analysis of sentences. This book should 
be specially acceptable to the masters 
of private academies, where, too often, 
the grammar lessons are as useless as 
they are antiquated.' 

Papers for the Schoolmaster. 

' Mr. Graham's purpose in this 
practical little volume is to impress upon 
the young learner's mind the definitions 
and rules of grammar, by setting him a 
series of progressive exercises, arranged 
under and exemplifying each rule suc- 
cessively. As such practice maybe begun 
with the accidence of English Grammar, 
the study, although commonly regarded 
as dry and repulsive, may obviously on 
this plan be made both amusing and use- 
ful to the beginner from his first steps/ 
Educational Times. 

1 The principle adopted in this little 
work is a sound one. Most English 
grammars consist exclusively of abstract 
rules intended to be committed to 
memory. But it may be reasonably 
doubted whether rules are of much value 
to a young student, as in many cases 
they are not clearly understood. To be of 
real utility, a grammatical rule should be 
immediately followed by an exercise, in 
which the principle is practically applied 
and illustrated. On this plan Mr. Graham 
has aimed at exciting an interest in the 
youthful mind by the simplicity and clear- 
ness of his rules, and by the exercises 
which serve alike to illustrate them and 
to test the extent of the scholar's compre- 
hension of them. We warmly commend 
his thoroughly practical work to the atten- 
tion of teachers and of parents generally/ 
Midland Counties Herald. 



STUDIES from the ENGLISH POETS: a Heading-Book 

intended principally for the Higher Classes in Schools, but adapted also for 
Home Teaching. Revised Edition, fcp. 8vo. 5s. 

This work differs from most of the kind in the method of selection, the pieces being 
taken from only a few of the best of the English classics, namely, Cowper, Collins, 
Goldsmith, Gray, Milton, Pope, and Shakspeare. The strikingly beautiful pas- 
sages are printed in italics ; explanatory notes and illustrations are given ; and 
Questions are appended for examination and exercise in English composition. 



London : LONGMANS and CO. Paternoster Kow. 



Works by the same Author. 



ENGLISH ; or, the Art of Composition Explained in a Series 

of Instructions and Examples. Eevised Edition, fcp. 8vo. 55. 



HELPS to ENGLISH GRAMMAR ; or, Easy Exercises for 

Young Children ; an improved Spelling and Reading made Easy, combined. 
Revised Edition, fcp. 8vo. 25. 6d. 

The object of this little work, which is 
an improved Spelling and Beading made 
Easy combined, is to give the child who has 
mastered the alphabet distinct ideas on the 
nature of words and the grammatical struc- 
ture of sentences ; and it is intended to be 
put into the pupil's hands before he begins 
the regular study of grammar. The prin- 
ciple of the work is illustration by example 
and by frequent repetition, with a view to 
bring into action a child's powers of discrimi- 
nation from his earliest conception of a 
combination of spoken or written words to 
convey an idea. In order to accomplish 
this end, neither a rule nor an explanation 
is given which is not immediately exempli- 



fied in an exercise. The book having no 
higher aim than to prepare the pupil's 
mind for grammatical studies, syntax and 
prosody are entirely omitted ; and the ab- 
struse nomenclature of the rudiments is 
freed from technicality. The simpler defi- 
nitions are addressed to the eye, wherever 
practicable, in woodcuts ; and the arrow is 
adopted to show the connection by action 
or motion between persons and things. 
Great care has been taken to make the rules 
and explanations as clear as possible, in the 
hope of lightening the labour of the teacher, 
and of exciting the learner's interest in 
what he too commonly finds a dry and re- 
pulsive task. 



ENGLISH SPELLING, with Rules and Exercises; Intended 

as a Class-Book for Schools, or for Home Teaching. Is. 6d. 

ENGLISH STYLE; or, a Course of Instruction for the 

Attainment of a good Style of Writing: with an Historical Sketch of the 
English Language, and brief Remarks on its Nature and Genius. Second Edi- 
tion, revised, fcp. 8vo. price 6s. 
This work, which is specially adapted for self-instruction, is a complete treatise on 
the studTof English style, closing with an historical sketch of our language, in which 
specimens of its condition are given from the earliest to the present time. 

ENGLISH SYNONYMES Classified and Explained: with 

Practical Exercises, designed for Schools and Private Tuition. Fourth Edition, 
revised, fcp. 8vo. 6s. 



This work was written with a view to 
supply what the Author believed to be a 
desideratum in elementary education. ' The 
great source of a loose style,' says Dr. 
Blair, in his 'Lectures upon the English 
Language,' 'is the injudicious use of syno- 
nymous terms.' For one fault in construc- 
tion or idiom, at least twency incorrect 
applications of words will be found m the 
periodical and light literature of the day. 
The want of a critical knowledge of verbal 



distinctions is obviously the cause of these 
errors. The Author is far from considering 
this work as complete, but he hopes it will 
be found to contain principles sufficiently 
suggestive to enable those who use it to 
continue the study to any extent for them- 
selves. In this edition, the work has under- 
gone a thorough revision, the number of 
Svnonymes in Section IV. has been con- 
siderably increased, and a General Index 
has been added. 



FIRST STEPS to LATIN WRITING ; intended as a Prac- 
tical Illustration of the Latin Accidence. To which are added Bx& ™f™rnvrt 
Principal Rules of Syntax. Second Edition, much enlarged and improved, 

12mo . 4s. 

London : LONGMANS and CO. Paternoster Row. 



[SEPTEMBER 1868.J 



GENERAL LIST OE WORKS 

PUBLISHED BY 

Messrs. LONGMANS, GREEN, and CO. 

PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON. 
Historical Works. 

LORD MACATJLAY'S WORKS. Complete and Uniform Library 

Edition. Edited by his Sister, Lady Trevelyan. 8 vols. 8vo. with Portrait , 
price £5 5s. cloth, or £8 8s. bound in tree-calf by Riviere. 

The HISTORY of ENGLAND from the Fall of Wolsey to the Death 
of Elizabeth. By James Anthony Froude, M.A. late Fellow of Exeter 
College, Oxford. Vols. 1. to X. in 8vo. price £7 2s. cloth. 

Vols. I. to IV. the Reign of Henry VIII. Third Edition, 54s. 
Vols. V. and VI. the Reigns of Edward VI. and Mary. Third Edition, 28s. 
Vols. VII. and VIII. the Reign of Elizabeth, Vols. I. and II. Fourth 
Edition, 28s. 
Vols. IX. and X. the Reign of Elizabeth, Vols. III. and IV. 32s. 

The HISTORY of ENGLAND from the Accession of James II. 
Lord Macaulay. 
Libraey Edition, 5 vols. 8vo. £4. 
Cabinet Edition, 8 vols, post 8vo. 48s. 
People's Edition, 4 vols, crown 8vo. 16s. 

REVOLUTIONS in ENGLISH HISTORY. By Robert Vaughan, 
D.D. 3 vols. 8vo. 30s. 

The GOVERNMENT of ENGLAND : its Structure and its Develop- 
ment. By William Edwaed Heaen, LL.D. Professor of History and 
Political Economy in the University of Melbourne. 8vo. 14s. 

PLTJTOLOGY ; or, the Theory of the Efforts to Satisfy Human Wants. 
By the same Author. 8vo. 14s. 

An ESSAY on the HISTORY of the ENGLISH GOVERNMENT and 

Constitution, from the Reign of Henry VII. to the Present Time. By 
John Eael Russell, Fourth Edition, revised. Crown 8vo. 6s. 

On PARLIAMENTARY GOVERNMENT in ENGLAND : Its Origin, 
Development, and Practical Operation. By Alpbteus Todd. Librarian of 
the Legislative Assembly of Canada. In Two Volumes. Vol. I. 8vo. 16s. 

A 



2 NEW "WORKS published by LONGMANS and CO. 

The HISTORY of ENGLAND during the Reign of George the Third. 
By the Right Hon. W. N. Massey. Cabinet Edition. 4 vols, post 8vo. 245. 

The CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY of ENGLAND, since the Acces- 
sion of George III. 1760—1860. By Sir Thomas Eeskine May, C.B. Second 
Edition. 2 vols. 8vo. 33s. 

CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY of the BRITISH EMPIRE from the 
Accession of Charles I. to the Restoration. By G. Beodie, Esq. Historio- 
grapher-Royal of Scotland. Second Edition. 3 vols. 8vo. 36s. 

HISTORICAL STUDIES. By Henry Merivale, M.A. 8vo. price 
12. 6d. 

The OXFORD REFORMERS of 1488 ; being a History of the Fellow- 
work of John Colet, Erasmus, and Thomas More. By Feedeeic Seebohm. 
8vo. 12s. 

LECTURES on the HISTORY of ENGLAND. By William Long- 
man. Vol. I. from the Earliest Times to the Death of King Edward II. with 
6 Maps, a coloured Plate, and 53 Woodcuts. 8vo. 15s. 

HISTORY of CIVILISATION in England and France, Spain and Scot- 
land. By Heney Thomas Buckle. Fifth Edition of the entire Work, 
with a complete Index. 3 vols, crown 8vo. 24s. 

DEMOCRACY in AMERICA. By Alexis De Tocqueville. Trans- 
lated by Heney Reeve, with an Introductory Notice by the Translator. 
2 vols. 8vo. 21s. 

The SPANISH CONQUEST in AMERICA, and its Relation to the 

History of Slavery and to the Government of Colonies. By Aethue Helps. 
4 vols. 8vo. £3. Vols. I. and II. 28s. Vols. III. and IV. 16s. each. 

HISTORY of the REFORMATION in EUROPE in the Time of 
Calvin. Bv J. H. Meele D'Atjbigne, D.D. Vols. I. and II. 8vo. 28s. and 
Vol. III. 12s. Vol. IV. 16s. 

HISTORY of FRANCE, from Clovis and Charlemagne to the Acces- 
sion of Napol6on III. By Eyee Evans Ceowe. 5 vols. 8vo. £4 13s. 

LECTURES on the HISTORY of FRANCE. By the late Sir James 
Stephen, LL.D. 2 vols. 8vo. 24s. 

The HISTORY of GREECE. By C. Thirlwall, D.D. Lord Bishop 

of St. David's. 8 vols. fcp. 8vo. price 28s. 
The TALE of the GREAT PERSIAN WAR, from the Histories of 
Herodotus. By Geoegke W. Cox, M.A. Fcp. 7s. Qd. 

GREEK HISTORY from Themistocles to Alexander, in a Series of 
Lives from Plutarch. Revised and arranged by A. H. Clougkh. Fcp. with 
44 Woudcuts, Gs. 

CRITICAL HISTORY of the LANGUAGE and LITERATURE of 

Ancient Greece. By William Muee, of Caldwell. 5 vols. Svo. £3 9s. 

HISTORY of the LITERATURE of ANCIENT GREECE. By Pro- 
fessor K. O. Mullee. Translated by the Right Hon. Sir Geoege Coene- 
wall Lewis, Bart, and by J. W. Donaldson, D.D. 3 vols. 8vo. 21s. 

HISTORY of the CITY of ROME from its Foundation to the Sixteenth 
Century of the Christian Era. By Thomas H. Dyee, LL.D. Svo. with 2 
Maps, 15s. 



NEW WORKS published by LONGMANS and CO. 



HISTORY of the ROMANS under the EMPIRE. By the Rev. C. 
Merivale, LL.D. 8 vols, post Svo. 485. 

The FALL of the ROMAN REPUBLIC : a Short History of the Last 

Century of the Commonwealth. By the same Author. 12mo. 7s. 6d. 

The HISTORY of INDIA, from the Earliest Period to the close of Lord 
Dalhousie's Administration. By John Clack: Marshman. 3 vols, crown 
Svo. 22s. Gel. 

HISTORY of the FRENCH in IEDIA, from the Founding of Pondi- 
chery in 1674 to its Capture in 1761. By Major G. B. Malleson, Bengal 
Staff Corps. Svo. 165. 

CRITICAL and HISTORICAL ESSAYS contributed to the Edinburgh 
Review. By the Right Hon. Lord Macaulat. 
Library Edition, 3 vols. Svo. 365. 
Cabinet Edition, 4 vols, post 8vo. 245. 

Traveller's Edition, in One Volume, square crown 8vo. 215. ! 
Pocket Edition, 3 vols. fcp. 21s. 
People's Edition, 2 vols, crown 8vo. 85. 

The PAPAL DRAMA: an Historical Essav, wherein the Story of the 
Popedom of Rome is narrated from its Origin to the Present Time. By 
Thomas H. Gill. 8vo. 125. 

GOD in HISTORY ; or, the Progress of Man's Faith in the Moral 
Order of the World. By the late Baron Bunsen. Translated from the 
German by Susanna Winkworth ; with a Preface by Dean Stanley. In 
Three Volumes. Yols. I. and II. 8vo. 305. 

HISTORY of the RISE and INFLUENCE of the SPIRIT of 

RATIONALISM in EUROPE. By W. E. H. Lecey, M.A. Third Edition, 
revised. 2 vols. 8vo. 255. 

The HISTORY of PHILOSOPHY, from Thales to Comte. By 
George Henry Lewes. Third Edition. 2 vols. 8vo. 305. 

EGYPT'S PLACE in UNIVERSAL HISTORY ; an Historical Investi- 
gation. By Baron Bunsen, D.C.L. Translated by C. H. Cottrell, M.A. 
With Additions by S. Birch, LL.D. 5 vols. Svo. price £8 145. Qd. 

MAUNDER'S HISTORICAL TREASURY ; comprising a General In- 

troductory Outline of Universal History, and a series of Separate Histories. 
Latest Edition, carefullv revised throughout and brought down by the 
Rev. G. VV. Cox, M.A. late Scholar of Trinity College, Oxford. Fcp. 105. 

HISTORY of the CHRISTIAN CHURCH, from the Ascension of 
Christ to the Conversion of Constantino. By E. Burton, D.D. late 
Prof, of Divinity in the Univ. of Oxford. Eighth Edition. Fcp. 35. Qd. 

SKETCH of the HISTORY of the CHURCH of ENGLAND to the 
Revolution of 1688. By the Right Rev. T. V. Short, D.D. Lord Bishop of 
St. Asaph. Seventh Edition. Crown Svo. 105. Qd. 

HISTORY of the EARLY CHURCH, from the First Preaching of the 
Gospel to the Council of Niesea. a.d. 325. By Elizabeth Iff. Sewell*, 
Author of 'Amy Herbert.' Fcp. 45. Qd. 



4 NEW WORKS published by LONGMANS and CO. 

The ENGLISH REFORMATION. By P. C. Masstngberd, M.A. 

Chancellor of Lincoln and Rector of South Ormsby. Fourth Edition, revised. 
Pep. 8vo. Is. 6d. 

HISTORY of WESLEYAN METHODISM. By George Smith, 
F.A.S. Fourth Edition, with numerous Portraits. 3 vols. cr. 8vo. 75. each. 



Biography and Memoirs. 

DICTIONARY of GENERAL BIOGRAPHY; containing Concise 
Memoirs and Notices of the most Eminent Persons of all Countries, from 
the Earliest Ages to the Present Time. Edited by W. L. R. Cates. 8vo. 21s. 

MEMOIRS of Sir PHILIP FRANCIS, K.C.B. with Correspondence 

and Journals. Commenced by the late Joseph: Parkes ; completed and 
edited by Herman Merivale, M.A. 2 vols. 8vo. with Portrait and Fac- 
similes, 305. 

A MEMOIR of BARON BUNSEN, late Minister Plenipotentiary and 
Envoy Extraordinary of the Kins: of Prussia at the British Court. Extracted 
from Family Sources by his Widow, Baroness Bunsen". With Two Por- 
traits and several Lithographic Views. 2 vols. 8vo. 42s. 

LIFE and CORRESPONDENCE of RICHARD WHATELY, D.D. late 
Archbishop of Dublin. By E. Jane Whately. Popular Edition, with 
Additions and Omissions. Crown 8vo. with Portrait, 7s. 6d. 

EXTRACTS of the JOURNALS and CORRESPONDENCE of MISS 

Berry, from the Year 1783 to 1852. Edited by Lady Theresa Lewis. 
Second Edition, with 3 Portraits. 3 vols. 8vo. 425. 

LIFE of the DUKE of WELLINGTON. By the Rev. G. R. Gleig, 
M.A. Popular Edition, carefully revised; with copious Additions. Crown 
8vo. with Portrait, 5s. 

HISTORY of MY RELIGIOUS OPINIONS. By J. H. Newman, D.D. 

Being the Substance of Apologia pro Vita Sua. Post 8vo, 6s. 

FATHER MATHEW: a Biography. By John Francis Maguire, 
M.P. for Cork. Popular Edition, with Portrait. Crown 8vo. 3s. 6d. 

Rome ; its Rulers and its Institutions. By the same Author. New 

Edition nearly ready. 

LETTERS of DISTINGUISHED MUSICIANS, viz. Gluck, Haydn, P. E. 

Bach, Weber, and Mendelssohn. Translated from the German by Lady 
Y^allace. With Three Portraits. Post 8vo. 14s. 

FELIX MENDELSSOHN'S LETTERS from Italy and Switzerland, 

and Letters from 1833 to 1847, translated by Lady Wallace. New Edition, 
with Portrait. 2 vols, crown 8vo. 5s. each. 

MOZART'S LETTERS (1769-1791), translated from the Collection of 
Dr. Lttdwig- Nohl by Lady Wallace. 2 vols, post 8vo. with Portrait and 
Facsimile, 18s. 

BEETHOVEN'S LETTERS (1790-1826), Translated from the Collec- 
tion of Dr. Nohl by Lady Y/allace. 2 vols, post 8vo. with Portrait, 18s. 



NEW WORKS published by LONGMANS and CO. 



FARADAY as a DISCOVERER. By John Tyndall, LL.D. F.R.S. 

Professor of Natural Philosophy in the Royal Institution of Great Britain. 
With Two Portraits. Crown 8vo. 6s. 

MEMOIRS of SIR HENRY HAVELOCK, K.C.B. By John Clark 

Marshman. Cabinet Edition, with Portrait. Crown 8vo. price 5s. 

LIFE of PASTOR FLIEDNER, Founder of the Deaconesses' Institu- 
tion at Kaiserswerth. Translated from the German by Catherine Wink- 
. worth. Pep. 8vo. with Portrait, 35. Qd. 

LIFE of FRANZ SCHUBERT, translated from the German of 

Keitzle Von Hellboen by Aethue Duke Coleridge, M.A. late Pellow 
of King's College, Cambridge. [Nearly ready. 

WITH MAXIMILIAN in MEXICO. From the Note-Book of a 
Mexican Officer. By Max. Baron Von Alvensleben, late Lieutenant in 
the Imperial Mexican Army. Post 8\ o. Is. Qd. 

VICISSITUDES of FAMILIES. By Sir Bernard Burke, Ulster 
King of Arms. First, Second, and Third Series. 3 vols, crown 8vo. 
12*. Gd. each. 

ESSAYS in ECCLESIASTICAL BIOGRAPHY. By the Right Hon. 

Sir J. Stephen, LL.D. Cabinet Edition (being the Pifth) . Crown Svo. 75. Qd. 

MAUNDER' S BIOGRAPHICAL TREASURY. Thirteenth Edition, 
reconstructed, thoroughly revised, and in great part rewritten ; with about 
1,000 additional Memoirs and Notices, by "W. L. E,. Cates. Pep. 10s. Qd. 

LETTERS and LIFE of FRANCIS BACON, including all his Occa- 
sional Works. Collected and edited, with a Commentary, by J. Spedding, 
Trin. Coll. Cantab. Vols. I. and II. Svo. 245. 



Criticism, Philosophy, Polity, &c. 

The INSTITUTES of JUSTINIAN; with English Introduction, Trans- 
lation, and Notes. By T. C. Sandars, M.A. Barrister, late Fellow of Oriel 
Coll. Oxon. Third Edition. 8vo. 155. 

The ETHICS of ARISTOTLE, illustrated with Essays and Notes. 
By Sir A. Grant, Bart. M.A. LL.D. Second Edition, revised and completed. 
2 vols. Svo.price 28s. 

ELEMENTS of LOGIC. By R. Whatelt, D.D. late Archbishop of 

Dublin. Ninth Edition. 8vo. 10s. Qd. crown Svo. 4s. Qd. 

Elements of Rhetoric. By the same Author. Seventh Edition, 
8vo. 10s. Qd. crown 8vo. 4s. Qd. 

English Synonymes. Edited by Archbishop Whatelt. 5th Edition. 
Fcp. 3s. 

BACON'S ESSAYS with ANNOTATIONS. By E. Whatelt, D.D. 

late Archbishop of Dublin. Sixth Edition. Svo. 10s. Qd. 



6 NEW WORKS published by LONGMANS and CO. 

LORD BACON'S WORKS, collected and edited by R. L. Ellis, M.A. 

J. Spedding, M.A. and D. D. Heath. Vols. I. to V. Philosophical Works, 
5 vols. 8vo. £4 6s. Vols. VI. and VII. Literary and Professional Works, 
2 vols. £1 16s. 

On REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT. By John Stuart Mill, 
M.P. for Westminster. Third Edition, 8vo. 9s. crown 8vo. 2s. 

On LIBERTY. By John Stuart Mill, M.P. for Westminster. 
Third Edition. Post 8vo. 7s. Qd. crown 8vo. Is. 4>d. 

Principles of Political Economy. By the same Author. Sixth 
Edition. 2 vols. Svo. 30s. or in 1 vol. crown 8vo. 5s. 

A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive. By the same 
Author. Seventh Edition. Two vols. 8vo. 25s. 

Utilitarianism. By the same Author. Second Edition. 8vo. 5s. 

Dissertations and Discussions, Political, Philosophical, and His- 
torical. By the same Author. Second Edition, revised. 3 vols. 8vo. 36s. 

Examination of Sir W. Hamilton's Philosophy, and of the Principal 

Philosophical Questions discussed in his Writings. By the same Author. 
Third Edition. 8vo. 16s. 

WORKMEN and WAGES at HOME and ABROAD ; or, the Effects of 
Strikes, Combinations, and Trade Unions. By J. Ward, Author of 'The 
World in its Workshops/ &c. Post Svo. 7s. Qd. 

The ELEMENTS of POLITICAL ECONOMY. By Henry Dunning 
Macleol, M.A. Barrister- at- Law. 8vo. 16s. 

A Dictionary of Political Economy; Biographical, Bibliographical, 
Historical, and Practical. By the same Author. Vol. I. royal Svo. 30s. 

An OUTLINE of the NECESSARY LAWS of THOUGHT : a Treatise 
on Pure and Applied Logic. By the Most Rev. William, Lord Arch- 
bishop of York, D.D. F.R.S. Ninth Thousand. Crown 8vo. 5s. Qd. 

ANALYSIS of Mr. MILL'S SYSTEM of LOGIC. By W. Stebbing, 
M.A. Fellow of Worcester College, Oxford. Second Edition. 12mo. 3s. Qd. 

The ELECTION of REPRESENTATIVES, Parliamentary and Muni- 
cipal ; a Treatise. By Thomas Hare, Barrister-at-Law. Third Edition, 
with Additions. Crown 8vo. Qs. 

SPEECHES of the RIGHT HON. LORD MACAULAY, corrected by 

Himself. Library Edition, 8vo. 12s. People's Edition, crown 8vo. Ss.Qd. . 

LORD MACAULAY' S SPEECHES on PARLIAMENTARY REFORM 

in 1831 and 1832. 16mo. Is. 

SPEECHES on PARLIAMENTARY REFORM, delivered in the House 
of Commons by the Right Hon. B. Disraeli (1848-1866). Edited by 
Montagu Court, B.A. Second Edition. 8vo. lEs. 

INAUGURAL ADDRESS delivered to the University of St. Andrews. 
By John Stuaet Mill. Svo. 5s. People's Edition, crown Svo. Is. 



; 



NEW WORKS published by LONGMANS and CO. 7 

A DICTIONARY of the ENGLISH LANGUAGE. By R G. Latham, 
M.A. M.D. F.R.S. Founded on the Dictionary of Dr. S. Johnson, as edited 
by the Rev. H. J. Todd., with numerous Emendations and Additions. 
In Two Volumes. Tol. I. 4to. in Two Parts, price £3 105. In course of pub- 
lication, also, in 36 Parts, price 35. Qd. each. 

THESAURUS of ENGLISH WORDS and PHRASES, classified and 

arranged so as to facilitate the Expression of Ideas, and assist in Literary 
Composition. By P. M. Roget, M.D. New Edition. Crown 8vo. 10s. Qd. 

LECTURES on the SCIENCE of LANGUAGE, delivered at the Royal 
Institution. By Max Mullek, M.A. Taylorian Professor in the University 
of Oxford. First Series, Fifth Edition, 12s. Second Series, 18s. 

CHAPTERS on LANGUAGE. By Frederic W. Farrar, F.R.S. late 

Fellow of Trin. Coll. Cambridge. Crown 8vo. 8s. Qd. 

The DEBATER ; a Series of Complete Debates, Outlines of Debates, 
and Questions for Discussion. By F. Rowton. Fcp. 6s. 

A COURSE of ENGLISH READING, adapted to every taste and 
capacity; or, How and What to Read. By the Rev. J. Pycroet, B.A. 
Fourth Edition. Fcp. 5s. 

MANUAL of ENGLISH LITERATURE, Historical and Critical. By 

Thomas Arnold, M.A. Second Edition. Crown 8vo. price 7s. Qd. 

SOUTHEY'S DOCTOR, complete in One Volume. Edited by the Rev. 
J. W. Warter, B.D. Square crown 8vo. 12s. Qd. 

HISTORICAL and CRITICAL COMMENTARY on the OLD TESTA- 
MENT ; with a New Translation. By M. M. Kalisch, Ph.D. Vol. I. 
Genesis, 8vo. 18s. or adapted for the General Reader, 12s. Vol. II. Exodus, 
15s. or adapted for the General Reader, 12s. Vol. III. Leviticus, Part I. 
15s. or adapted for the General Reader, 8s. 

A Hebrew Grammar, with Exercises. By the same Author. Part I. 
Outlines with Exercises, 8vo. 12s. Qd. Key, 5s. Part II. Exceptional 
Forms and Constructions, 12s. Qd. 

A LATIN-ENGLISH DICTIONARY. By J. T. White, D.D. of 

Corpus Christi College, and J. E. Riddle, M.A. of St. Edmund Hall, Oxford. 
Imperial 8vo. pp. 2,128, price 42s. cloth. 

A New Latin-English Dictionary, abridged from the larger work 
of White and Riddle (as above), by J. T. White, D.D. Joint-Author. 
Medium 8vo. pp. 1,048, price 18s. cloth. 

The Junior Scholar's Latin-English Dictionary, abridged from the 
larger works of Wliite and Riddle (as above), by J. T. White, D.D. surviving 
Joint* Author. Square 3 2mo. pp. 662, price 7s. Qd. cloth. 

An ENGLISH-GREEK LEXICON, containing all the Greek Words 
used by Writers of good authority. By C. D. Yong-e, B.A. Fifth Edi- 
tion. 4to. 21s. 

Mr. YONGE'S NEW LEXICON, English and Greek, abridged from 

his larger work (as above). Revised Edition. Square 12mo. 8s. Qd. 

A GREEK-ENGLISH LEXICON. Compiled by H. G. Liddell, D.D. 
Dean of Christ Church, and R. Scott, D.D. Master of Balliol. Fifth Edition. 
Crown 4to. 31s. Qd. 

A Lexicon, Greek and English, abridged from Liddell and Scott's 
Greek-English Lexicon. Eleventh Edition. Square 12mo. 7s. Qd, 



NEW WORKS published by LONGMANS and CO. 



A SANSKRIT-ENGLISH DICTIONARY, the Sanskrit words printed 
both in the original Devanagari and in Roman letters. Compiled by T. 
Beneey, Prof, in the Univ. of Gottingen. 8vo. 52s. Qd. 

A PRACTICAL DICTIONARY of the FRENCH and ENGLISH LAN- 
GUAGES. By L. Contanseau. Thirteenth Edition. Post 8vo. 10*. 6d. 

Contanseau's Pocket Dictionary, French and English, abridged from 
the above by the Author. New Edition, revised. Square 18mo. 35. Qd. 

NEW PRACTICAL DICTIONARY of the GERMAN LANGUAGE; 

German-English and English- Germ an. By the Rev. W. L. Blacexey, M.A. 
and Dr. Carl Martin Friedlander. Cheaper Issue, post 8vo. 7*. Qd. 



Miscellaneous Works and Popular Metaphysics. 

LESSONS of MIDDLE AGE, with some Account of various Cities and 
Men. By A. K. H. B. Author of ' The Recreations of a Country Parson. * 
Post 8vo. 95. 

RECREATIONS of a COUNTRY PARSON. By A. K. H. B. New Edi- 
tions, carefully revised. First and Second Series, crown 8vo. 3s. Qd. each. 

The Common-place Philosopher in Town and Country. By the same 
Author. Crown 8vo. 3s. Qd. 

Leisure Hours in Town ; Essays Consolatory, iEsthetical, Moral, 
Social, and Domestic. By the same Author. Crown 8vo. 35. Qd. 

The Autumn Holidays of a Country Parson; Essays contributed 
to Fraser's Magazine and to Good Words. By the same. Crown 8vo. 3s. Qd. 

The Graver Thoughts of a Country Parson. By the same Author. 
First and Second Series, crown 8vo. 3s. Qd. each. 

Critical Essays of a Country Parson. Selected from Essays con- 
tributed to Fraser's Magazine. By the same Author. Crown 8vo. 3s. 6d. 

Sunday Afternoons at the Parish Church of a Scottish University 

City. By the same Author. Crown 8vo. 35. Qd. 

Counsel and Comfort spoken from a City Pulpit. By the same 
Author. Crown 8vo. 35. Qd. 

SHORT STUDIES on GREAT SUBJECTS. By James Anthony 
Froude, M.A. late Fellow of Exeter Coll. Oxford. Second Edition. 8^0. 125. 

STUDIES in PARLIAMENT. A Series of Sketches of Leading Poli- 
ticians. By R. H. Hutton. Crown 8vo. 45. Qd. 

LORD MACAULAY'S MISCELLANEOUS WRITINGS. 

Library Edition. 2 vols. 8vo. Portrait, 215. 
People's Edition. 1 vol. crown 8vo. 45. Qd. 

The REV. SYDNEY SMITH'S MISCELLANEOUS WORKS ; includ- 
ing his Contributions to the Edinburgh Review. 2 vols, crown 8vo. 85. 

Elementary Sketches of Moral Philosophy, delivered at the Royal 
Institution. By the Rev. Sydney Smith, M.A. Fourth Edition. Fcp. 6s. 



NEW AVORKS published by LONGMANS and CO. 9 

j The Wit and Wisdom of the Rev. Sydney Smith: a Selection of 

the most memorable Passages in his Writings and Conversation. 16mo. 5s. 

EPIGRAMS, Ancient and Modern ; Humorous, Witty, Satirical, Moral, 
and Panegyrical. Edited by Rev. John Booth, B.A. Cambridge. Second 
Edition, revised and eidarged. Fcp. 7s. Qd. 

From MATTER to SPIRIT : the Result of Ten Years' Experience in 
Spirit Manifestations. By Sophia E. De Mobgan. With a Peeface by 
her Husband, Professor De Moegan. Post 8vo. 8s. Qd. 

The PEDIGREE of the ENGLISH PEOPLE; an Argument, His- 
torical and Scientific, on the Ethnology of the English. By Thomas 
Nicholas, M.A. Ph.D. 8vo. 16s. 

The ENGLISH and THEIR ORIGIN : a Prologue to authentic English 
History. By Luke Owen Pike, M.A. Barrister-at-Law. 8vo. 95. 

ESSAYS selected from CONTRIBUTIONS to the Edinburgh Review. 
By Henry Rogebs. Second Edition. 3 vols. fcp. 21s. 

Reason and Faith, their Claims and Conflicts. By the same Author. 
New Edition, accompanied by several other Essays. Crown 8vo. 6s. 6d. 

The Eclipse of Faith ; or, a Visit to a Religious Sceptic. By the 
same Author. Twelfth Edition. Pep. 5s. 

Defence of the Eclipse of Faith, by its Author ; a rejoinder to Dr. 
Newman's Reply. Third Edition. Pep. 35. Qd. 

Selections from the Correspondence of R. E. H. Greyson. By the 

same Author. Third Edition. Crown 8vo. 7s. Qd. 

OCCASIONAL ESSAYS. By Chandos Ween Hosktns, Author of 
1 Talpa, or the Chronicles of a Clay Farm,' &c. 16mo. 5s. Qd. 

CHIPS from a GERMAN WORKSHOP; being Essays on the Science 
of Religion, and on Mythology, Traditions, and Customs. By Max 
Mullee, M.A. Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. 2 vols. 8vo. 21s. 

An INTRODUCTION to MENTAL PHILOSOPHY, on the Inductive 
Method. By. J. D. Moeell,M.A. LL.D. 8vo. 12*. 

Elements of Psychology, containing the Analysis of the Intellectual 
Powers. By the same Author. Post 8vo. Is. Qd. 

The SECRET of HEGEL: being the Hegelian System in Origin, 
Principle, Form, and Matter. By J". H. Sterling. 2 vols. 8vo. 28*. 

The SENSES and the INTELLECT. By Alexander Bain, M.A, 

Professor of Logic in the University of Aberdeen. Third Edition. 8vo. 15s. 

The EMOTIONS and the WILL. By Alexander Bain, M.A. 

Professor of Logic in the University of Aberdeen. Second Edition. Svo.155. 

On the Study of Character, including an Estimate of Phrenology. 
By the same Author. 8vo. 95. 

TIME and SPACE: a Metaphysical Essay. By Shadworth H. 

Hodgson. 8vc. price l$s. 

7? 



10 NEW WORKS published by LONGMANS and CO. 

CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS and SCHOLARS; or, Sketches of Education 

from the Christian Era to the Council of Trent. By the Author of ' The 
Three Chancellors,' &c. 2 vols. 8vo. 305. 

The WAY to REST : Results from a Life-search after Religious Truth. 
By R. Vaughan, D.D. Crown 8vo. 7s. Qd. 

The PHILOSOPHY of NECESSITY; or, Natural Law as applicable to 
Mental, Moral, and Social Science. By Charles Beat. Second Edition. 
8vo. 9s. 

The Education of the Peelings and Affections. By the same Author. 
Third Edition. 8vo. 8s. Qd. 

On Porce, its Mental and Moral Correlates. By the same Author. 

8vo. 5s. 
The FOLK-LORE of the NORTHERN COUNTIES of ENGLAND and 

the Borders. By William Henderson. With an Appendix on House- 
hold Stories by the Rev. S. Baring-Gould, M.A. Post 8vo. 9s. Qd. 

The SILVER STORE, Collected from Mediaeval Christian and Jewish 
Mines. By S. Baring-Gould, M.A. Crown 8vo. 6s. 



Astronomy, Meteorology, Popular Geography, &c. 

OUTLINES of ASTRONOMY. By Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart. 
M.A. Ninth Edition, revised ; with Plates and Woodcuts. 8vo. 18s. 

SATURN and its SYSTEM. By Richard A. Proctor, B.A. late 
Scholar of St John's Coll. Camb. Svo. with 14 Plates, 14s. 

Handbook of the Stars. By the same Author. With 3 Maps. Square 
fcp. 5s. 

CELESTIAL OBJECTS for COMMON TELESCOPES. By the Rev. 
T. W. Webb, M.A. P.R.A.S. Revised Edition, with a large Map of the 
Mood, a New Plate, and several Woodcuts. 16mo. 7s. Qd. 

DOVE'S LAW of STORMS, considered in connection with the Ordinary 
Movements of the Atmosphere. Translated by R. H. Scott, M.A. T.C.I). 
8vo. 10s. Qd. 

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY for SCHOOLS and GENERAL READERS. 

By M. F. Maury, LL.D. Pep. with 2 Charts, 2s. Qd. 

A TREATISE on the ACTION of VIS INERTIA in the OCEAN ; 

with Remarks on the Abstract Nature of the Forces of Vis Inertia r and 
Gravitation, and a New Theory of the Tides. By William Leighton 
Jordan, P.R.G.S. With 12 Charts and Diagrams. 8vo. 14s. 

M'CULLOCH'S DICTIONARY, Geographical, Statistical, and Historical, 
of the various Countries, Places, and Principal Natural Objects in the World. 
New Edition, with the Statistical Information brought up to the latest 
returns by F. Martin. 4 vols. 8vo. with coloured Maps, £i 4s. 

A GENERAL DICTIONARY of GEOGRAPHY, Descriptive, Physical, 
Statistical, and Historical : forming a complete Gazetteer of the World. By 
A. Keith Johnston, LL.D. F.R G.S. Revised to July 1867. 8vo. 31s. Qd. 

A MANUAL of GEOGRAPHY, Physical, Industrial, and Political. 
By W. Hughes, P.R.G.S. With 6 Maps. Pep. 7s. Qd. 



NEW WORKS published by LONGMANS and CO. 11 

The STATES of tlie RIVER PLATE : their Industries and Commerce. 

Ey VVilfeid Latham, Buenos Ayres. Second Edition, revised. 8vo. 12s. 

HAWAII ; the Past, Present, and Future of its Island-Kingdom : an 
Historical Account of the Sandwich Islands. By Manlet Hopkins, 
Second Edition, with Portrait, Map, &c. Post 8vo. 105. Gel. 

MAUNDER'S TREASURY of GEOGRAPHY, Physical, Historical, 
Descriptive, and Political. Edited by W. Hughes, E.R.G.S. With 7 Maps 
and 16 Plates. Pep. 10s. Gel. 



Natural History and Popular Science. 

ELEMENTARY TREATISE on PHYSICS, Experimental and Applied. 
Translated and edited from Ganot's Elements ele Physique (with the Au- 
thor's sanction) by E. Atkinson, Ph. D. P.C.S. New Edition, revised 
and enlarged ; with a Coloured Plate and 620 Woodcuts. Post 8vo. 155. 

The ELEMENTS of PHYSICS or NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. By 

Neil Aenott, M.D. F.R.S. Physician Extraordinary to the Queen. Sixth 
Edition, rewritten and completed. Two Parts, 8vo. 21s. 

SOUND : a Course of Eight Lectures delivered at the Royal Institution 
of Great Britain. By John Ttndaxl, LL.D. F.R.S. Crown 8vo. with 
Portrait of M. Chlaelni and 169 Woodcuts, price 9s. 

HEAT CONSIDERED as a MODE of MOTION. By Professor John 
Ttndaxl, LL.D. F.R.S. Third Edition. Crown 8vo. with Woodcuts, 10s. Gel. 

LIGHT : Its Influence on Life and Health. By Forbes Winslow, 
M.D. D.C.L. Oxon. (Hon.). Pep. 8vo. Gs. 

An ESSAY on DEW, and several Appearances connected with it. 
By W. C. Wells. Edited, with Annotations, by L. P. Casella, F.R.A.S. 
and an Appendix by R. Steachan, E.M.S. 8vo. 5s. 

ROCKS CLASSIFIED and DESCRIBED. By Bernhard Von Cotta. 
An English Edition, by P. H. Lawrence (with English, German, and 
French Synonymes), revised by the Author. Post 8vo. 14s. 

A TREATISE on ELECTRICITY, in Theory and Practice. By A. 
De la Rive, Prof, in the Academy of Geneva. Translated by C. V.Walker, 
P.R.S. 3 vols. 8vo. with Woodcuts, £3 13*. 

The CORRELATION of PHYSICAL FORCES. By W. E. Grove, 
Q.C V.P.R.S. Fifth Edition, revised, and followed by a Discourse on Con- 
tinuity. 8vo. 105. Gel, The Discourse on Continuity, separately, 2*. Gel. 

MANUAL of GEOLOGY. By S. Haughton, M.D. F.R.S. Revised 

Edition, with 66 Woodcuts. Pep. 7s. Gel. 

A GUIDE to GEOLOGY. By J. Phillips, M.A. Professor of Geology 
in the University of Oxford. Pifth Edition, with Plates. Pep. 4s. 

A GLOSSARY of MINERALOGY. By H. W. Bkistow, F.G.S. of 

the Geological Survey of Great Britain. With 486 Pigures. Crown 8vo. 6s. 

VAN DER HOEVEN'S HANDBOOK of ZOOLOGY, Translated from 
the Second Dutch Edition by the Rev. W. Claek, M.D. P.R.S. 2 vols. 8vo. 
with 24 Plates of Figures, 60s. 



12 NEW WORKS published by LONGMANS and CO. 



Professor OWEN'S LECTURES on the COMPARATIVE ANATOMY 

and Physiology of the Invertebrate Animals. Second Edition, with 235 
Woodcuts. Svo. 21s. 

The COMPARATIVE ANATOMY and PHYSIOLOGY of the VERTE- 

brate Animals. By Richard Owen, F.R.S. D.C.L. 3 vols. 8vo. with 
above 1,200 Woodcuts. Vols. I. and II. price 21s. each. Yol. III. just ready. 

The FIRST MAN and HIS PLACE in CREATION, considered on 
the Principles of Common !Smse from a Christian Point of View, By 
George Moore, M.D. Post 8vo. 8s. Qd. 

The PRIMITIVE INHABITANTS of SCANDINAVIA : an Essay on 

Comparative Ethnography, and a Contribution to the History of the Develop- 
ment of Mankind. Containing a description of the Implements, Dwellings, 
Tombs, and Mode of Living of the Savages in the North of Europe during 
the Stone Age. By Sven Nilsson. Translated from the Third Edition; 
with an Introduction by Sir J. Lubbock. With 16 Plates of Figures and 
3 Woodcuts. 8vo. 18s. 

The LAKE DWELLINGS of SWITZERLAND and other parts of 
Europe. By Dr. P. Keller. Translated and arranged by J. E. Lee,F.S.A. 
P.G.S. With Woodcuts and nearly 100 Plates of Figures/ Royal 8vo. 31s. Qd. 

BIBLE ANIMALS ; being an Account of the various Birds, Beasts, 
Fishes, and other Animals mentioned in the Holy Scriptures. By the Rev. 
J. G. Wood, M.A. F.L.S. Copiously illustrated with Original Designs, made 
under the Author's superintendence and engraved on Wood. In course of 
publication monthly, to be completed in 20 Parts, price Is. each, forming 
One Volume, uniform with 'Homes without Hands.' 

HOMES WITHOUT HANDS : a Description of the Habitations of 
Animals, classed according to their Principle of Construction. By Rev. J. 
G. Wood, M.A. F.L.S. With about 140 Vignettes on Wood (20 full size of 
page). Second Edition. 8vo. 21s. 

MANUAL of CORALS and SEA JELLIES. By J. R. Greene, B.A. 

Edited by Joseph A. Galbraith, M.A. and Samuel Haughton, M.D. 
Fcp. with 39 Woodcuts, 5s. 

Manual of Sponges and Animalculse ; with a General Introduction 
on the Principles of Zoology. By the same Author and Editors. Fcp. with 
16 Woodcuts, 2s. 

Manual of the Metalloids. By J. Apjohn, M.D. F.K.S. and the 

same Editors. Revised Edition. Fcp. with 38 Woodcuts, 7s. Qd. 

The HARMONIES of NATURE and UNITY of CREATION. By Dr. 

George Hartwig-. 8vo. with numerous Illustrations, 18s. 

The Sea and its Living Wonders. By the same Author. Third 
(English) Edition. 8vo. with many Illustrations, 21s. 

The Tropical World. By the same Author. With 8 Chromoxylo- 
graphs and 172 Woodcuts. 8vo. 21s. 

The POLAR WORLD ; a Popular Account of Nature and Man in the 

Arctic and Antarctic Regions By the same Author. 8vo. with numerous 
Illustrations. [Nearly ready. 

A FAMILIAR HISTORY of BIRDS. By E. Stanley, D.D. F.R.S. 
late Lord Bishop of Norwich. Seventh Edition, with Woodcuts. Fcp, 3s. Qd. 



NEW WORKS published by LOXGMANS and CO. 13 

CEYLON. By Sir J. Emerson Tennent, K.C S. LL.D. Fifth Edition ; 
with Maps, &c. and 90 Wood Engravings. 2 vols. 8vo. £2 10s. 

The Wild Elephant, its Structure and Habits, with the Method of 
Taking and Training it in Ceylon. By the same Author. Fcp. 8vo. with 
22 Woodcuts, 3s. Qd. 

KIRBY and SPENCE'S INTRODUCTION to ENTOMOLOGY, or 

Elements of the Natural History of Insects. 7th Edition. Crown 8vo. 5s. 

MAUNDER' S TREASURY of NATURAL HISTORY, or Popular 
Dictionary of Zoology. Revised and corrected by T. S. Cobbold, M.D. 
Ecp. with 900 Woodcuts, 105. 

The TREASURY of BOTANY, or Popular Dictionary of the Vegetable 
Kingdom ; including a Glossary of Botanical Terms. Edited by J.Lixdley, 
E.R.S. and T. Moore, F.L.S. assisted by eminent Contributors. Pp. 1,274, 
with 274 Woodcuts and 20 Steel Plates. 2 Parts, fcp. 20s. 

The ELEMENTS of BOTANY for FAMILIES and SCHOOLS. 

Tenth Edition, revised by Thomas Moore, F.L.S. Ecp. with 154 Wood- 
cuts, 2s, Qd. 

The ROSE AMATEUR'S GUIDE. By Thomas Rivers. Twelfth 
Edition. Ecp. 45. ; 

The BRITISH FLORA; comprising the Phsenogamous or Flowering 
Plants and the Ferns. By Sir W. J. Hooker, K.H. and G. A. Walkee- 
Arnott, LL.D. 12mo. with 12 Plates, lis. or coloured, 21s. 

LOUDON'S ENCYCLOPAEDIA of PLANTS; comprising the Specific 
Character, Description, Culture, History, &c. of all the Plants found in 
Great Britain. With upwards of 12,000 Woodcuts. 8vo. 42s. 

Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Trees and Shrubs ; containing the Hardy 
Trees and Shrubs of Great Britain scientifically and popularly described. 
With 2,000 Woodcuts. 8vo. 50s. 

MAUNDER' S SCIENTIFIC and LITERARY TREASURY. New 

Edition, thoroughly revised and in great part re-written, with above 1,000 
new Articles, by J. Y. Johxsox, Corr. M.Z.S. Fcp. 10s. Qd. 

A DICTIONARY of SCIENCE, LITERATURE, and ART. Fourth 
Edition, re-edited by W. T. Braxde (the Author), and George W. Cox, M.A. 
assisted by contributors of eminent Scientific and Literary Acquirements. 
3 vols, medium 8vo. price 63s. cloth. 



Chemistry, Medicine, Surgery, and the 
Allied Sciences. 

DICTIONARY of CHEMISTRY and the Allied Branches of other 
Sciences : founded on that of the late Dr. Ure. By Hexry Watts, E.C.S. 
assisted by eminent Contributors. Vol. I. 3ls. Qd." Vol. II. 26s. Vol. III. 
3is. Qd. Vol. IV. 24s. and Vol. V. 30s. Complete in 5 vols, medium 8vo. 
£1 3s. 



14 NEW WORKS published by LONGMANS and CO. 

ELEMENTS of CHEMISTRY, Theoretical and Practical. By William 
A. Miller, M.D. LL.D. F.R.S. F.G.S. Prof, of Chemistry, King's Coll. 
London. 3 vols. 8vo. £3. Part I. Chemical Physics, 155. Part II. 
Inorganic Chemistry, 21s. Part III. Organic Chemistry, 24s. 

A MANUAL of CHEMISTRY, Descriptive and Theoretical. By 
William Odling, M.B. E.R.S. Part I. 8vo. 9s. Part II. just ready. 

A Course of Practical Chemistry, for the use of Medical Students. 
By the same Author. New Edition, with 70 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo. 7s. Qd. 

Lectures on Animal Chemistry, delivered at the Royal College of Phy- 
sicians in 1865. By the same Author. Crown 8vo. 4s. Qd. 

HANDBOOK of CHEMICAL ANALYSIS, adapted to the Unitary 

System of Notation. By E. T. Conington, M.A. F.C.S. Post 8vo. 7s. Qd. 
— Conington's Tables of Qualitative Analysis, price 2s. Qd. 

The DIAGNOSIS, PATHOLOGY, and TREATMENT of DISEASES 

of Women; including the Diagnosis of Pregnancy. By Graily Hewitt, 
M.D. Second Edition, enlarged ; with 116 Woodcut Illustrations. 8vo. 24s. 

LECTURES on the DISEASES of INFANCY and CHILDHOOD. By 

Charles West, M.D. &c. Fifth Edition, revised and enlarged. 8vo. 16s. 

EXPOSITION of the SIGNS and SYMPTOMS of PREGNANCY : 

with other Papers on subjects connected with Midwifery. By W. F. 
Montgomery, M.A. M.D. M.R.I.A. 8vo. with Illustrations, 25s. 

A SYSTEM of SURGERY, Theoretical and Practical. In Treatises 
by Various Authors. Edited by T. Holmes, M.A. Cantab. Assistant-Surgeon 
to St. George's Hospital. 4 vols. 8vo. £4 13s. 

Vol. I. General Pathology. 21s. 

Vol. II. Local Injuries: Gunshot Wounds, Injuries of the Head, 
Pack, Pace, Neck, Chest, Abdomen, Pelvis, of the Upper and Lower Ex- 
tremities, and Diseases of the Eye. 21s. 

Vol. III. Operative Surgery. Diseases of the Organs of Circula- 
tion, Locomotion, &c. 21s. 

Vol. IV. Diseases of the Organs of Digestion, of the Genito- 
urinary System, and of the Breast, Thyroid Gland, and Skin ; with 
Appendix and General Index. 30s. 

On the SURGICAL TREATMENT of CHILDREN'S DISEASES. By 

the same. With 9 Plates and 95 Woodcuts. 8vo. 21s. 

LECTURES on the PRINCIPLES and PRACTICE of PHYSIC. By 

Thomas Watson, M.D. New Edition in preparation, 

LECTURES on SURGICAL PATHOLOGY. By J. Paget, F.R.S. 

Edited by W. Turner, M.B. New Edition in preparation. 

A TREATISE on the CONTINUED FEVERS of GREAT BRITAIN. 

By C. Mtjrchison, M.D. 8vo. with coloured Plates, 18s. 

ANATOMY, DESCRIPTIVE and SURGICAL. By Henry Gray, 

E.R.S. With 410 Wood Engravings from Dissections. Fourth Edition, by 
T. Holmes, M.A. Cantab. Royal 8vo. 28s. 

OUTLINES of PHYSIOLOGY, Human and Comparative. By John 
Marshall, F.R.C.S. Surgeon to the University College Hospital. 2 vols, 
crown 8vo. with 122 Woodcuts, 82s. 



NEW WORKS published by LONGMANS and CO. 15 



PHYSIOLOGICAL ANATOMY and PHYSIOLOGY of MAN. By the 
late R. B. Todd, M.D. F.R.S. and W. Bowman, F.R.S. of King's College. 
With numerous Illustrations. Vol. II. 8vo. 25s. 

Vol. I. New Edition by Dr. Lionel S. Beale, F.R.S. in course of publi- 
cation ; Part I. with 8 Plates, 75. Qd. 

HISTOLOGICAL DEMONSTRATIONS ; a Guide to the Microscopical 

Examination of the Animal Tissues in Health and Disease, for the use of 
the Medical and Veterinary Professions. By G. Harley, M.D. and G. T. 
Brown, M.R.C.V.S. Post Svo. with 223 Woodcuts, price 12s. 

COPLAND'S DICTIONARY of PRACTICAL MEDICINE, abridged 
from the larger work and throughout brought down to the present State 
of Medical Science. 8vo. 36s. 

The WORKS of SIR B. C. BRODIE, Bart, collected and arranged 
by Charles Hawkins, F.R.C.S.E. 3 vols. Svo. with Medallion and Fac- 
simile, 48s. 

The TOXICOLOGIST'S GUIDE : a New Manual on Poisons, giving the 

Best Methods to be pursued for the Detection of Poisons (post-mortem or 
otherwise). By John Horslet, F.C.S. Analytical Chemist. Post Svo. 3s. Qd. 

On ANILINE and its DERIVATIVES: a Treatise on the Manufac- 
ture of Aniline and Aniline Colours. By M. Retmann, Ph.D. L.A.M. To 
which is added, in an Appendix, the Report on the Colouring Matters de- 
rived from Coal Tar shewn at the French Exhibition of 1867 by Dr. Hofman 
and Messrs. De Laire and Girard. Revised and edited by William 
Crookes, F.R.S. With 5 Woodcuts. 8vo. 10s. Qd. 

A MANUAL of MATERIA MEDICA and THERAPEUTICS, abridged 
from Dr. Pereira's Elements by F. J. Farre, M.D. assisted by R. Bentlet, 
M.R.C.S. and by R. Warington, F.R.S. 8vo. with 90 Woodcuts, 21s. 

THOMSON'S CONSPECTUS of the BRITISH PHARMACOPCEIA, 

Corrected by E. Lloyd Birzett, M.D. 18mo. price 5s. Qd. 

MANUAL of the DOMESTIC PRACTICE of MEDICINE. By W. B. 
Kesteven, F.R.C.S.E. Third Edition, revised, with Additions. Fcp. 5s. 

GYMNASTS and GYMNASTICS. By John H. Howard, late Pro- 
fessor of Gymnastics, Comm. Coll. Ripponden. Second Edition, revised 
and enlarged, with 135 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo. 10s. Qd. 



The Fine Arts, and Illustrated Editions. 

HALF-HOUR LECTURES on the HISTORY and PRACTICE of the 

Fine and Ornamental Arts. By William B. Scott. New Edition, revised 
by the Author ; with 50 Woodcuts. Crown Svo. 8s. Qd. 

An INTRODUCTION to the STUDY of NATIONAL MUSIC ; com- 
prising Researches into Popular Songs, Traditions, and Customs. By Carl 
Eng-el. With numerous Musical Specimens. 8vo. 16s. 

LECTURES on the HISTORY of MODERN MUSIC, delivered at the 
Royal Institution. By John Hullah. First Course, with Chro- 
nological Tables, post 8vo. Qs. Qd. Second Course, on the Transition 
Period, with 40 Specimens, 8vo. 16s. 

SIX LECTURES on HARMONY, delivered at the Royal Institution 
of Great Britain in the Year 1867. By G. A. Macearren. W r ith nume- 
rous engraved Musical Examples and Specimens. 8vo. 10s. 6c?. 



16 NEW WORKS published by LONGMANS and CO. 

The CHORALE BOOK for ENGLAND: the Hymns translated by 
Miss C. Winkworth ; the tunes arranged by Prof. W. S. Bennett and 
Otto Goldschmidt. Ecp. 4to. 12s. Qd. 

Congregational Edition. Fcp. 2*. 

SACRED MUSIC for FAMILY USE ; a Selection of Pieces for One, 
Two, or more Voices, from the best Composers, Foreign and English. 
Edited by John Hullah. 1 vol. music foiio, price 21s. 

The NEW TESTAMENT, illustrated with Wood Engravings after the 
Early Masters, chiefly of the Italian School. Crown 4to. 635. cloth, gilt top ; 
or £5 5s. elegantly bound in morocco. 

LYRA GERMANICA ; the Christian Year. Translated by Catherine 
Winkwohth; with 125., Illustrations on Wood drawn by J. Leighion, 
E.S.A. 4to. 215. 

LYRA GERMANICA ; the Christian Life. Translated by Catherine 

Winkworth ; with about 200 Woodcut Illustrations by J. Leig-hton, P.S.A. 
and other Artists. 4to. 21s. 

The LIFE of MAN SYMBOLISED by the MONTHS of the YEAR. 
Text selected by R. Pigot ; Illustrations on Wood from Original Designs by 
J. Leighton, F.S.A. 4to. 4s2s. 

CATS' and FARLIE'S MORAL EMBLEMS ; with Aphorisms, Adages, 
and Proverbs of all Nations. 121 Illustrations on Wood by J. Leighton, 
E.S.A. Text selected by R. Pigot. Imperial 8vo. 31*. Qd. 

SHAKSPE ARES SENTIMENTS and SIMILES, printed in Black and 

Gold, and Illuminated in the Missal Style by Henry Noel Humphreys. | 
Square post 8vo. 21s. 

SACRED and LEGENDARY ART. By Mrs. Jameson. 

Legends of the Saints and Martyrs. Fifth Edition, with 19 

Etchings and 187 Woodcuts. 2 vols, square crown 8vo. 31s. Qd. 
Legends of the Monastic Orders. Third Edition, with 11 Etchings 

and 88 Woodcuts. 1 vol. square crown 8vo. 21s, 
Legends of the Madonna. Third Edition, with 27 Etchings and 165 

Woodcuts. 1 vol. square crown 8vo. 21s. 
The History of Our Lord, with that of his Types and Precursors. 

Completed by Lady Eastlake. Revised Edition, with 31 Etchings and 

281 Woodcuts. 2 vols, square crown 8vo. 42s. 



Arts, Manufactures, &c. 

DRAWING from NATURE. By George Barnard, Professor of 
Drawing at Rugby School. With 18 Lithographic Plates, and 108 Wood 
Engravings. Imperial 8vo. price 25s. Or in Three Parts, royal 8vo. Part; I. 
Trees and Foliage, Is. Qd. Part II. Foreground Studies. Is. Qd. Part III. 
Tour in Switzerland and the Pyrenees, Is. Qd. 

GWILT'S ENCYCLOPEDIA of ARCHITECTURE, with above 1,100 
Engravings on Wood. Fifth Edition, revised and enlargpd by Wyatt 
Papworth. Additionally illustrated with nearly 400 Wood Engravings by 
O. Jewitt, and more than 100 other new Woodcuts. 8vo. 52s. Qd. 



NEW WORKS published by LONGMANS and CO. 17 

TUSCAN SCULPTORS, their Lives, Works, and Times. With 45 
Etchings and 28 Woodcuts from Original Drawings and Photographs. By 
Charles C. Perktns. 2 vols, imperial 8vo. 635. 

ORIGINAL DESIGNS for WOOD-CARVING, with PRACTICAL IN- 
structiov.s in the Art. By A. P. B. With 20 Plates of Illustrations engraved 
on Wood. 4to. 18s. 

HINTS on HOUSEHOLD TASTE in FURNITURE and DECORATION. 
By Charles L. Eastlake, Architect. With numerous Illustrations 
engraved on Wood. [Nearly ready. 

The ENGINEER'S HANDBOOK; explaining the Principles which 
should guide the Young Engineer in the Construction of Machinery. By 
C. S. Lowndes. Post 8vo. 55. 

The ELEMENTS of MECHANISM. By T. M. Goodeve, M.A. 
Professor of Mechanics at the R. M. Acad. Woolwich. Second Edition, 
with 217 Woodcuts. Post 8vo. 65. Qd. 

URE'S DICTIONARY of ARTS, MANUFACTURES, and MINES. 
Sixth Edition, chit-fly rewritten and greatly enlarged by Robert Hunt, 
P.R.S. assisted by numerous Contributors eminent in Science and the Arts, 
and familiar with Manufactures. With above 2,000 Woodcuts. 3 vols, me- 
dium 8vo. price £4 145. Qd. 

ENCYCLOPEDIA of CIVIL ENGINEERING, Historical, Theoretical, 

and Practical. By E. Crest, C.E. With above 3,000 Woodcuts. 8vo. 42s. 
TREATISE on MILLS and MILLWORK. By W. Fairbairn, C.E. 

Second Edition, with 18 Plates and 322 Woodcuts. 2 vols. 8vo. 325. 

Usefnl Information for Engineers. By the same Author. First, 
Second, and Third Series, with many Plates and Woodcuts. 3 vols, 
crown 8vo. 105. Qd. each. 

The Application of Cast and Wrought Iron to Building Purposes. 
By the same Author. Third Edition, with 6 Hates and 118 Woodcuts. 8vo.l65. 

IRON SHIP BUILDING, its History and Progress, as comprised in a 
Series of Experimental Researches. By the same Author. With 4 Plates and 
130 Woodcuts. 8vo. 185. 

A TREATISE on the STEAM ENGINE, in its various Applications 
to Mines, Mills, Steam Navigation, Railways and Agriculture. By J. Bourne, 
C.E. Eighth Edition ; with Portrait, 37 Plates, and 546 Woodcuts. 4to.425. 

Catechism of the Steam Engine, in its various Applications to 
Mines, Mills, Steam Navigation, Railways, and Agriculture. By the same 
Author. With 199 Woodcuts. Fcp. 65. 

Handbook of the Steam Engine. By the same Author, forming a 
Key to the Catechism of the Steam Engine, with 67 Woodcuts. Pep. 95. 

A TREATISE on the SCREW PROPELLER, SCREW VESSELS, and 
Screw Engines, as adapted for purposes of Peace and War; with Notices 
of other Methods of Propulsion, Tables of the Dimensions and Performance 
of Screw Steamers, and detailed Specifications of Ships and Engines. By 
J. Bourne, C.E. Third Edition, with 54 Plates and 287 Woodcuts. 4to, 635. 

EXAMPLES of MODERN STEAM, />IR, and GAS ENGINES of 
the most Approved Types, as employed for Pumping, for Driving Machinery, 
for Locomotion, and tor Agriculture, minutely and practically described. 
Illustrated by Working Drawings, and e nbodyina: a Critical Account of all 
Projects of Recent Improvement in Furnaces, Boilers, and Engines. By 
the same Author. In course of publication monthly, to bw completed in 24 
Parts, price 25. Qd. each, forming One volume 4to. with about 50 Plates and 
400 Woodcuts. 

c 



18 NEW WORKS published by LONGMANS and CO. 

A HISTORY of the MACHINE-WROUGHT HOSIERY and LACE 

Manufactures. By William Felkin, F.L.S. F.S.S. Royal 8vo. 21s. 
MANUAL of PRACTICAL ASSAYING, for the use of Metallurgists, 

Captains of Mines, and Assayers in general. By John Mitchell, F.C.S. 

Second Edition, with 360 Woodcuts. 8vo. 21s. 
The ART of PERFUMERY ; the History and Theory of Odours, and 

the Methods of Extracting the Aromas of Plants. By Dr. Piesse, F.C.S. 

Third Edition, with 53 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo. 10s. Qd. 
Chemical, Natural, and Physical Magic, for Juveniles during the 

Holidays. By the same Author. Third Edition, with 38 Woodcuts. Fcp. 6s. 
LOUDON'S ENCYCLOPAEDIA of AGRICULTURE: comprising the 

Laying-out, Improvement, and Management of Landed Property, and the 

Cultivation and Economy of the Productions of Agriculture. With 1,100 

Woodcuts. 8vo. 31s. Qd. 

Loudon's Encylopaedia of Gardening: comprising the Theory and 
Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape Gar- 
dening. With 1,000 Woodcuts. 8vo. 31s. Qd. 

Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Cottage, Farm, and Villa Architecture 

and Furniture. With more than 2,000 Woodcuts. 8vo. 42s. 

BAYLDON'S ART of VALUING RENTS and TILLAGES, and Claims 
of Tenants upon Quitting Farms, both at Michaelmas and Lady-Day. 
Eighth Edition, revised by J. C. Morton. 8vo. 10s. Qd. 



Religious and Moral Works. 

An EXPOSITION of the 39 ARTICLES, Historical and Doctrinal. 
By E. Harold Browne, D.D. Lord Bishop of Ely. Seventh Edit. 8vo. 16s. 

The ACTS of the APOSTLES ; with a Commentary, and Practical and 
Devotional Suggestions for Readers and Students of the English Bible. By 
the Rev. F. C. Cook, M.A. Canon of Exeter, &c. New Edition. 8vo. 12s. Qd. 

The LIFE and EPISTLES of ST. PAUL. By W. J. Conybeare, 
M.A. late Fellow of Trim Coll.Cantab. and the Very Rev. J. S. Howson, D.D. 
Dean of Chester. 

Library Edition, with all the Original Illustrations, Maps, Landscapes 
on Steel, Woodcuts, &c. 2 vols. 4to. 48s. 

Intermediate Edition, with a Selection of Maps, Plates, and Woodcuts. 
2 vols, square crown 8vo. 31s. Qd. 

People's Edition, revised and condensed, with 46 Illustrations and 
Maps. 2 vols, crown 8vo. 12s. 

The VOYAGE and SHIPWRECK of ST. PAUL; with Dissertations 

on the Life and Writings of St. Luke and the Ships and Navigation of the 
Ancients. By James Smith, F.R.S. Third Edition. Crown 8vo. 10s. Qd. 

EVIDENCE of the TRUTH of the CHRISTIAN RELIGION derived 

from the Literal Fulfilment of Prophecy. By Alexander Keith, D.D. 
37th Edition, with numerous Plates, in square 8vo. 12s. Qd. ; also the 39th 
Edition, in post 8vo. with 5 Plates, 6s. 

The HISTORY and DESTINY of the WORLD and of the CHURCH, 

according to Scripture. By the same Author. Square 8vo. with 40 

Illustrations, 10s. 



NEW WORKS published by LONGMANS and CO. 19 

A CRITICAL and GRAMMATICAL COMMENTARY on ST. PAUL'S 

Epistles. By C. J. Ellicott, D.D. Lord Bishop of Gloucester and Bristol. 8vo. 

Galatians, Third Edition, 8s. 6d. 

Ephesians, Fourth Edition, 8s. 6d. 

Pastoral Epistles, Third Edition, 10s. 6d. 

Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon, Third Edition, 105. 6d. 

Thessalonians, Third Edition, 7s. Qd. 

Historical Lectures on the Life of our Lord Jesus Christ : being the 
Hulsean Lectures for 1859. By the same Author. Fourth Edition. Svo. 
price 10s. 6d. 

An INTRODUCTION to the STUDY of the NEW TESTAMENT, 
Critical, Exegetical, and Theological. By the Rev. IS. Davidson, D.D. 
LL.D. 2 vols. Svo. 305. 

Rev. T. H. KORNE'S INTRODUCTION to the CRITICAL STUDY 

and Knowledge of the Holy Scriptures. Eleventh Edition, corrected and 
extended under careful Editorial revision. With 4 Maps and 22 Woodcuts 
and Facsimiles. 4 vols. 8vo. £3 13s. 6d. 

Rev. T. H. Home's Compendious Introduction to the Study of the 
Bible, being an Analysis of the larger work by the same Author. Re-edited 
by the Rev. John Ayee, M.A. With Maps, &c. Post Svo. 9s. 

EWALD'S HISTORY of ISRAEL to the DEATH of MOSES. Trans- 
lated from the German. Edited, with a Preface, by Russell Maetineatj, 
M.A. Prof, of Hebrew in Manchester New Coll. London. Svo. 18s. 

The TREASURY of BIBLE KNOWLEDGE ; being a Dictionary of the 

Books, Persons, Places, Events, and other matters of which mention is made 
in Holy Scripture. By Rev. J. Ayee, M.A. With Maps, 16 Plates, and 
numerous Woodcuts. Pep. 10s. 6d. 

The LIFE and REIGN of DAVID KING of ISRAEL. By George 
Smith, LLD. P.A.S. Crown Svo. 7s. 6d. 

The GREEK TESTAMENT ; with Notes, Grammatical and Exegetical. 
By the Rev. W. Webstee, M.A. and the Rev. W. P. Wilkinson, M A. 

2 vols. Svo. £2, 4s. 
Vol. I. the Gospels and Acts, 20s. 
Vol. II. the Epistles and Apocalypse, 24s. 

EVERY-DAY SCRIPTURE DIFFICULTIES explained and illustrated. 
By J. E. Peescott, M.A. Vol. I. Matthew and Mark; Vol. II. Luke and 
John. 2 vols. Svo. 9s. each. 

The PENTATEUCH and BOOK of JOSHUA CRITICALLY EXAMINED. 

By the Right Rev. J, W. Colenso, D.D. Lord Bishop of Natal. People's 
Edition, in 1 vol. crown Svo. 6s. or in 5 Parts, Is. each. 

The CHURCH and the WORLD : Essays on Questions of the Day. 
By Various Writers. Edited by the Rev. Oeby Shipley, M.A. Piest 
Seeies, Third Edition, Svo. 15s. Second Seeies, Svo. 15s. Thied Seeies, 
8vo. 15s. 



20 NEW WORKS published by LONGMANS and CO. 

TRACTS for the DAY ; a Series of Essays on Theological Subjects. 
Uy various Authors. Edited by the Rev. Orby Shipley, M.A. I. Priestly 
Absolution Scriptural, 9d. II. Purgatory, $d. III. The Seven Sacra- 
ments, Is. Gd. IV. Miracles and Prayer, Gd. V. The Real Presence, Is. Sd. 
VI. Casuistry, Is. VII. Unction of the Sick, 9eZ. VIII. The Rule of Wor- 
ship, 9d, IX. Popular Rationalism, 9d. 

The FORMATION of CHRISTENDOM. Part I. By T. W. Allies, 

8vo. 125. 

CHRISTENDOM'S DIVISIONS, Part I., a Philosophical Sketch of 
the Divisions of the Christian Family in East and West. By Edmund S. 
Ffotjlkes. Post Svo. price Is. Gd. 

Christendom's Divisions, Part II. Greeks and Latins, being a His- 
tory of their Dissensions and Overtures for Peace down to the Reformation. 
By the same Author. Post 8vo. 155. 

The HIDDEN WISDOM of CHRIST and the KEY of KNOWLEDGE ; 

or, History of the Apocrypha. By Ernest De Bunsen. 2 vols. 8vo. 28s. 

The KEYS of ST. PETER ; or, the House of Rechab, connected with 
the History of Symbolism and Idolatry. By the same Author. 8vo. 14s. 

ESSAYS on RELIGION and LITERATURE. Edited by Archbishop 
Manning, D.D. 8vo. 10s. Gd. Second Series, price 14s. 

The TEMPORAL MISSION of the HOLY GHOST ; or, Reason and 

Revelation. By Archbishop Manning, D.D. SecondJEdit. Cr. 8vo. 8s. Gd. 

ENGLAND and CHRISTENDOM. By the same Author. Post 8vo. 
price 10s. Gd. 

ESSAYS and REVIEWS. By the Rev. W. Temple, D.D. the Rev. 
R. Williams, B.D. the Rev. B. Powell, M.A. the Rev. H. B. Wilson, 
B.D. C. W. Goodwin, M.A. the Rev. M. Pattison, B.D. and the Rev. B. 
Jowett, M.A. Twelfth Edition. Pep. 8vo. 5s. 

The CATHOLIC DOCTRINE of the ATONEMENT: an Historical 

Inquiry into jts Development in the Church. ByH. N. Oxenham, M.A. 
8vo. 85. Gd. 

PASSING THOUGHTS on RELIGION. By Elizabeth M. Sewell, 

Author of ' Amy Herbert/ New Edition. Fcp. Svo. 5s. 

Self-Examination before Confirmation. By the same Author. 32mo. 
price Is. Gd. 

Readings for a Month Preparatory to Confirmation, from Writers 
of the Early and English Church. By the same Author. Pep. 4s. 

Readings for Every Day in Lent, compiled from the Writings of 
Bishop Jeremy Taylor. By the same Author. Fcp. 5s. 

Preparation for the Holy Communion; the Devotions chiefly from 
the works of Jeremy Taylor. By the same. 32mo. 3s. 

PRINCIPLES of EDUCATION Drawn from Nature and Revelation, 

and applied to Female Education in the Upper Classes. By the Author 
of ' Amy Herbert.' 2 vols. fcp. 12s. Gd. 



NEW WORKS published by LONGMANS and CO. 21 



The WIFE'S MANUAL; or, Prayers, Thoughts, and Songs on Several 
Occasions of a Matron's Life. By the Rev. W. Calvert, M.A. Crown 8vo. 
price 105. Gd. 

■ SPIRITUAL SONGS ' for the SUNDAYS and HOLIDAYS through- 
out the Year. By J. S.B. Monsell, LL.D. Yicar of Egham and Rural Dean. 
Sixth Thousand. Fcp. 4s. Gd. 

The Beatitudes : Abasement before God ; Sorrow for Sin ; Meekness 
of Spirit; Desire for Holiness; Gentleness; Purity of Heart; the Peace- 
makers ; Sufferings for Christ. By the same. Third Edition. Pep. 3s. Gd. 

His PRESENCE— not his MEMORY, 1855. By the same Author, 
in Memory of his Sox. Pifth Edition. 16mo. Is. 

LYRA DOMESTICA; Christian Songs for Domestic Edification. 
Translated from the Psaltery and Harp of C. J. P. Spitta, and from other 
sources, by Richard Massie. Fiest and Second Seeies, fcp. 4s. 6d. each. 

LYRA SACRA ; Hymns, Ancient and Modern, Odes and Fragments 
of Sacred Poetry." Edited by the Rev. B. W. Savile, M.A. Third Edition, 
enlarged and improved. Pep. 5s. 

LYRA GERMANICA, translated from the German by Miss C. Wink- 
worth. First Seeies, Hymns for the Sundays and Chief Festivals; 
Second Seeies, the Christian Life. Pep. 3s. Gd. each Seeies. 

LYRA EUCHARISTICA ; Hymns and Verses on the Holy Communion, 
Ancient and Modern : with other Poems. Edited by the Rev. Oeby Ship- 
let, M.A. Second Edition. Pep. 7s. Gd. 

Lyra Messianica ; Hymns and Verses on the Life of Christ, Ancient 
and Modern ; with other Poems. By the same Editor. Second Edition, 
altered and enlarged. Pep. 7s. Gd. 

Lyra Mystica ; Hymns and Verses on Sacred Subjects, Ancient and 
Modern. By the same Editor. Fcp. 7s. Gd. 

ENDEAVOURS after the CHRISTIAN LIFE: Discourses. By 
James Maetineau. Fourth and cheaper Edition, carefully revised ; the 
Two Series complete in One Volume. Post 8vo. 7s. Gd. 

WHATELY'S Introductory Lessons on the Christian Evidences. 

18mo. Gd. 
INTRODUCTORY LESSONS on the HISTORY of RELIGIOUS 

Worship; being a Sequel to the 'Lessons on Christian Evidences.' By 
Richaed Whatelt, D.D. New Edition. 18mo. 2s. Gd. 
MOSHEIM'S ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. Murdock and Soames's 
Translation and Notes, re-edited by the Rev. W. Sttjbbs, MA. 3 vols. 
8vo. 45s. 

BISHOP JEREMY TAYLOR'S ENTIRE WORKS. With Life by 
Bishop Hebee. Revised and corrected by the Rev. C. P. Eden, 10 vols. 

price £o 5s. 



Travels, Voyages, &c. 

The NORTH-WEST PENINSULA of ICELAND ; being the Journal 
of a Tour in Iceland in the Summer of 1862. By C. W. Shepherd, M.A. 
F.Z.S. With a Map and Two Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo. 7s. Gd. 



NEW WORKS published by LONGMANS and CO. 



PICTURES in TYROL and Elsewhere. From a Family Sketch-Book. 
By the Authoress of * A Voyage en Zigzag/ &c. Small 4to. with numerous 
Illustrations, 21s. 

HOW WE SPENT the SUMMER; or, a Voyage en Zigzag in Switzer- 
land and Tyrol with some Members of the Alpine Club. From the Sketch- 
Book of one of the Party. In oblong 4to. with 300 Illustrations, 15s. 

BEATEN TRACKS ; or, Pen and Pencil Sketches in Italy. By the 
Authoress of • A Voyage en Zigzag/ With 42 Plates, containing about 200 
Sketches from Drawings made on the Spot. 8vo. 16s. 

MAP of the CHAIN of MONT BLANC, from an actual Survey in 
1863—1864. By A. Adams-Reilly, F.R.G.S. M.A.C. Published under the 
Authority of the Alpine Club. In Chromolithography on extra stout 
drawing-paper 28in. x 17in. price 10s. or mounted on canvas in a folding 
case, 12s. Qd. 

HISTORY of DISCOVERY in our AUSTRALASIAN COLONIES, 

Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand, from the Earliest Date to the 
Present Day. By William Howitt. 2 vols. 8vo. with 3 Maps, 20s. 

The CAPITAL of the TYCOON ; a Narrative of a Three Years' Kesi- 
dence in Japan. By Sir Rutherford Alcock, K.C.B. 2 vols. 8vo. with 
numerous Illustrations, 42s. 

FLORENCE, the NEW CAPITAL of ITALY. By C. R. Weld. With 
several Woodcuts from Drawings by the Author. Post 8vo. 12s. Qd. 

The DOLOMITE MOUNTAINS ; Excursions through Tyrol, Carinthia, 
Carniola, and Priuli, 1861-1863. By J. Gilbert and G. C. Churchill, 
F.R.G.S. With numerous Illustrations. Square crown 8vo. 21s. 

A LADY'S TOUR ROUND MONTE ROSA; including Visits to the 
Italian Valleys. With Map and Illustrations. Post 8vo. 14s. 

GUIDE to the PYRENEES, for the use of Mountaineers. By 
Charles Packe. 2d Edition, with Map and Illustrations. Cr. 8vo. 7s. Qd. 

The ALPINE GUIDE. By John Ball, M.R.I.A. late President of 
the Alpine Club. Post 8vo. with Maps and other Illustrations. 

Guide to the Eastern Alps, nearly ready. 

Guide to the Western Alps, including Mont Blanc, Monte Rosa, 
Zermatt, &c. 7s. Qd. 

Guide to the Oherland and all Switzerland, excepting the Neighbour- 
hood of Monte Rosa and the Great St. Bernard ; with Lombardy and the 
adjoining portion of Tyrol. 7s. Qd. 

NARRATIVES of SHIPWRECKS of the ROYAL NAVY between 1793 
and 1857, compiled from Official Documents in the Admiralty by W. O. S. 
Gillt ; with a Preface by W. S. Gillt, D.D. Third Edition. Fcp. 5s. 

TRAVELS in ABYSSINIA and the GALLA COUNTRY ; with an 
Account of a Mission to Ras Ali in 184S. From theMSS. of the late Walter 
Chichele Plowden, Her Britannic Majesty's Consul in Abyssinia. Edited 
by his Brother Trevor Chichele Plowden. With Two Maps. 8vo. 18s. 

The ARCH of TITUS and the SPOILS of the TEMPLE; an His- 
torical and Critical Lecture, with Authentic Illustrations. By William 
Knight, M.A. With 10 Woodcuts from Ancient Remains. 4to. 10s. , 



NEW WORKS published BY LONGMANS and CO. 23 

A WEEK at the LAND'S END. By J. T. Blight ; assisted by E. 
H. Rodd, R. Q. Couch, and J. Rales. "With Map and S6 Woodcuts. Fcp. 
price 6s. Qd. 

CURIOSITIES of LONDON; exhibiting the most Rare and Remarkable 
Objects of Interest in the Metropolis; with nearly Sixty Years' Personal 
Recollections. By John Times, F.S.A. New Edition, corrected and en- 
larged. 8vo. with Portrait, 21s. 

VISITS to REMARKABLE PLACES : Old Halls, Battle-Fields, and 

Scenes Illustrative of Striking Passages in English History and Poetry. 
By William Howitt. 2 vols, square crown 8vo. with Woodcuts, 25s. 

The RURAL LIFE of ENGLAND. By the same Author. With 
Woodcuts by Bewick and Williams. Medium 8vo. 12s. Qd. 

The ENGLISHMAN in INDIA. By Charles Raikes, Esq. C.S.I. 
formerly Commissioner of Lahore. Post 8vo. 7s. Qd. 

INDIAN POLITY: a View of the System of Administration in India. 
By George Chesney, Accomptant-General to the Government of India, 
Public Works Department ; Fellow of the University of Calcutta. With a 
Map shewing the latest Political Divisions of India. 8vo. 21s. 

The STORY of MAIRWARA ; or, Our Rule in India. Portrait. 
Crown 8vo. 3s. Qd. 

The IRISH in AMERICA. By John Francis Maguire, M.P. for 

Cork. Post 8vo. 12s. Qd. 



Works of Fiction. 

The WARDEN: a Novel. By Anthony Trollope. Crown 8vo. 2s. 6 d. 

Barchester Towers : a Sequel to * The Warden.' By the same 
Author. Crown 8vo. 3s. Qd. 

SPRINGDALE ABBEY: Extracts from the Letters of an English 

Preacher. 8vo. 12s. 

STORIES and TALES by Elizabeth M. Sewell, Author of * Amy 
Herbert, 5 uniform Edition, each Tale or Story complete in a single Volume. 



Amy Herbert, 2s. Qd. 
Gertrude, 2s. Qd. 
Earl's Daughter, 2s. Qd. 
Experience op Lipe, 2s. Qd. 
Cleve Hall, 3s. Qd. 



Ivors, 3s. Qd. 

Katharine Ashton, 3s. Qd. 
Margaret Perciyal, 5s. 
Laneton Parsonage, 4s. Qd. 
Ursula, 4s. Qd. 



A Glimpse of the World. By the Author of 'Amy Herbert.' Fcp. 7s. 6 d. 

The Journal of a Home Life. By the same Author. Post 8vo. 9s. Gd. 

After Life ; a Sequel to ' The Journal of a Home Life.' By the same 
Author. Post 8vo. 10s. Qd. 

BECKER'S GALLTTS ; or, Roman Scenes of the Time of Augustus : 
with Notes and Excursuses. New Edition. Post 8vo. 7s. Qd. . 

BECKER'S CHARICLES; a Tale illustrative of Private Life among the 
Ancient Greeks : with Notes and Excursuses. New Edition. Post 8vo. 7s. Qd. 



24 NEW WORKS published by LONGMANS and CO. 

NOVELS and TxiLES by G. J. Whyte Melville :— 
The Gladiators : A Tale of Kome and Judsea. Crown 8vo. 5s. 
Digby Grand, an Autobiography. Crown 8vo. 5s. 
Kate Coventry, an Autobiography. Crown 8vo. 5s. 
General Bounce, or the Lady and the Locusts. Crown 8vx>. 5s, 
Holmby House, a Tale of Old Northamptonshire. Crown 8vo. 5*. 
Good for Nothing, or All Down Hill. Crown 8vo. 65. 
The Queen's Maries, a Romance of Holyrood. Crown 8vo. 65. 
The Interpreter, a Tale of the War. Crown 8 vo. 5s. 

THE SIX SISTERS of the VALLEYS : an Historical Romance. By 

W. Bbamley-Mooee, M.A. Fourth Edition, with 14 Illustrations. Crown 

8vo. 5s. 
TALES from GREEK MYTHOLOGY. By George W. Cox, M.A. 

late Scholar of Trin. Coll. Oxon. Second Edition. Square 16mo. 3s. Qd. 
Tales of the Gods and Heroes. By the same Author. Second 

Edition. Pep. 5s. 
Tales of Thebes and Argos. By the same Author. Fcp. 4s. 6d. 
TALES from ANCIENT GREECE. By the same Author. Being a 

Collective Edition of the Author's Classical Stories and Tales, complete in 

One Volume. Crown 8vo. 65. Qd. 
A MANUAL of MYTHOLOGY, in the form of Question and Answer. 

By the same Author. Fcp. 35. 

Poetry and The Drama. 

.MOORE'S POETICAL WORKS, Cheapest Editions complete in 1 vol. 
including the Autobiographical Prefaces and Author's last Notes. Crown 
8vo. ruby type, with Portrait, 6s. : People's Edition, larger type, 12s. Qd. 

Moore's Poetical Works, as above, Library Edition, medium 8vo. 

with Portrait and Vignette, 14s. or in 10 vols. fcp. 3s. Qd. each. 
MOORE'S IRISH MELODIES, Maclise's Edition, with 161 Steel Plates 

from Original Drawings. Super-royal 8vo. 31s. 6d. 

Miniature Edition of Moore's Irish Melodies with Maclise's De- 
signs (as above) reduced in Lithography. Imp. 16mo. 10s. Qd. 

MOORE'S LALLA ROOKH. Tenniel's Edition, with 68 Wood 
Engravings from original Drawings and other Illustrations. Pep. 4to. 21s. 

SOTJTHEY'S POETICAL WORKS, with the Author's last Corrections 
and copyright. Additions. Library Edition, in 1 vol. medium 8vo. with 
Portrait and Vignette, 14s. or in 10 vols. fcp. 3s. Qd. each. 

LAYS of ANCIENT ROME ; with Ivry and the Armada. By the 
Right Hon. Lokd Macaulay. 16mo. 4s. Qd. 

Lord Macaulay's Lays of Ancient Rome. With 90 Illustrations on 
Wood, from the Antique, from Drawings by G. Schakf. Pep. 4to. 21s. 

Miniature Edition of Lord Macaulay's Lays of Ancient Rome, 
with the Illustrations (as above) reduced in Lithography. Imp. 16rno.10s.6d. 



NEW WORKS published by LONGMANS and CO. 25 

MEMORIES of some CONTEMPORARY POETS ; with Selections from 

their Writings. By Emily Taylor. Royal 18mo. 55. 
POEMS. By Jean Ingelow. Thirteenth Edition. Ecp. 8vo. 5s. 

POEMS by Jean Ingelow. A New Edition, with nearly 100 Illustra- 
tions by Eminent Artists, engraved on Wood by the Brothers Dalziel. 
Pep. 4to. 21s. 

A STORY of DOOM, and other Poems. By Jean Ingelow. Fcp. 5s. 

ALICE RUSHTON, and other Poems. By Francis Reynoles. 

Crown 8vo. 7s. Gd. 
A HOMEWARD RIDE, and other Poems. By C. Austen Leigh. 

35. Gd. 
POETICAL WORKS of LETITIA ELIZABETH LANDON (L.E.L.) 

2 vols. 16010, 10s. 

BOWDLER'S FAMILY SHAKSPEARE, cheaper Genuine Edition, 
complete in 1 vol. large type, with 36 Woodcut Illustrations, price 14s. or 
with the same Illustrations, in 6 pocket vols. 35. Gd. each. 

SHAKSPEARE'S SONNETS NEVER BEFORE INTERPRETED; 

his Private Friends identified; together with a recovered Likeness of 
Himself. By Gerald Massey. 8vo. 18s. 

HORATII OPERA. Library Edition, with Marginal References and 

English Notes. Edited by the Rev. J. E. Yonge. 8vo. 21s. 
The .ENEID of VIRGIL Translated into English Verse. , By John 

Conington, M.A. Crown 8vo. 9s. 
ARTJNDINES CAMI, sive Musarum Cantabrigiensium Lusus canori. 

Collegit atque edidit H. Drury, M.A. Editio Sexta, curavit H. J. Hodgson, 

M.A. Crown 8vo. 75. Gd. 
EIGHT COMEDIES of ARISTOPHANES, viz. the Acharnians, Knights, 

Clouds, Wasps, Peace, Birds, Frogs, and Plutus. Translated into Rhymed 

Metres by Leonard Hampson Rudd, M.A. 8vo. 15s. 
PLAYTIME with the POETS : a Selection of the best English Poetry 

for the use of Children. By a Lady. Revised Edition. Crown 8vo. 55. 
The HOLY CHILD: a Poem in Eour Cantos; also an Ode to Silence, 

and other Poems. By Stephen Jenner, M.A. Fcp. 8vo. 5s. 
POETICAL WORKS of JOHN EDMUND READE ; with final Revision 

and Additions. 3 vols. fcp. 18s. or each vol. separately, Gs. 
The ILIAD of HOMER TRANSLATED into BLANK VERSE. By 

Ichabod Charles Wright, M.A. 2 vols, crown 8vo. 215. 
The ILIAD of HOMER in ENGLISH HEXAMETER VERSE. By 

J. Henry Dart, M.A. of Exeter Coll. Oxford. Square crown 8vo. 21s. 
DANTE'S DIVINE COMEDY, translated in English Terza Rima by 

John Dayman, M.A. [With the Italian Text, after Brunetti, interpaged.] 

8vo. 21s. 



Rural Sports, &c. 

BLAINE'S ENCYCLOPEDIA of RURAL SPORTS; Hunting, Shoot- 
ing, Fishing, Racing, &c. With above 600 Woodcuts (20 from Designs by 
John Leech). 8vo. 42s. 

D 



NEW WORKS published by LONGMANS and CO. 



Col. HAWKER'S INSTRUCTIONS to YOUNG SPORTSMEN in all 

that relates to Guns and Shooting. Revised by the Author's Sosr. Square 
crown 8vo. with Illustrations, 18s. 

The RIFLE, its THEORY and PRACTICE. By Arthur Walker 

(79th Highlanders), Staff. Hythe and Fleetwood Schools of Musketry. 
Second Edition. Crown 8vo. with 125 Woodcuts, 5s. 

The DEAD SHOT, or Sportsman's Complete Gnide ; a Treatise on 
the Use of the Gun, Dog-breaking. Pigeon- shooting, &c. By Marksman. 
Revised Edition. Fcp. 8vo. with Plates, 5s. 

The FLY-FISHER'S ENTOMOLOGY. By Alfred Ronalds. With 

coloured Representations of the Natural and Artificial Insect. Sixth 
Edition ; with 20 coloured Plates. 8vo. 145. 

A BOOK on ANGLING ; a complete Treatise on the Art of Angling 
in every branch. By Prancis Francis. Second Edition, with Portrait 
and 15 other Plates, plain and coloured. Post 8vo. 15s. 

HANDBOOK of ANGLING : Teaching Fly-fishing, Trolling, Bottom- 
fishing, Salmon-fishing ; with the Natural History of River Pish, and the 
best modes of Catching them. By Ephemera. Pep. Woodcuts, 5s. 

The BILLIARD BOOK. By Captain Crawley. With about 100 
Diagrams on Steel and Wood. 8vo. 21s. 

The CRICKET FIELD; or, the History and the Science of the Game 
of Cricket. By James Ptcroet, B.A. Fourth Edition. Pep 5s. 

The HORSE-TRAINER'S and SPORTSMAN'S GUIDE: with Consi- 
derations on the Duties of Grooms, on Purchasing Blood Stock, and on 
Veterinary Examination. By Digby Collins. Post 8vo. 6s. 

The HORSE'S FOOT, and HOW to KEEP IT SOUND. By W. 

Miles, Esq. Ninth Edition, with Illustrations. Imperial 8vo. 12s. 6d. 

A Plain Treatise on Horse-Shoeing. By the same Author. Post 
8vo. with Illustrations, 2s. Qd. 

Stahles and Stable-Fittings. By the same. Imp. 8vo. with 13 Plates, 15s. 

Remarks on Horses' Teeth, addressed to Purchasers. By the same. 
Post 8vo. Is. Qd. 

On DRILL and MAN(EUVRES of CAVALRY, combined with Horse 
Artillery. By Major-Gen. Michael W. Smith, C.B. 8vo. 12s. Qd. 

BLAINE'S VETERINARY ART ; a Treatise on the Anatomy, Physi- 
ology, and Curative Treatment of the Diseases of the Horse, Neat Cattle 
and Sheep. Seventh Edition, revised and enlarged by C. Steel, M.R.C.Y.S.L. 
8vo. with Plates and Woodcuts, 18s. 

The HORSE : with a Treatise on Draught. By William Youatt. 
New Edition, revised and enlarged. 8vo. with numerous Woodcuts, 12s. 6c?. 

The Dog. By the same Author. 8vo. with numerous Woodcuts, 6s. 

The DOG in HEALTH and DISEASE. By Stonehenge. With 70 
Wood Engravings. Square crown 8vo. 10s. Qd, 



NEW WORKS published by LONGMANS and CO. 27 

The GREYHOUND. By Stonehenge. Revised Edition, with 24 
Portraits of Greyhounds. Square crown 8vo. 21s. 

The OX ; his Diseases and their Treatment: with an Essay on Parturi- 
tion in the Cow. By J. R. Dobson . Crown 8vo. with Illustrations, 7s. Qd. 



Commerce, Navigation, and Mercantile Affairs. 

BANKING, CURRENCY, and the EXCHANGES ; a Practical Trea- 
tise. By Arthur Crump. Post 8vo. Qs. 

The ELEMENTS of BANKING. By Henry During Macleod, M.A. 

Barrister-at-Law. Post 8vo. [Nearly ready. 

The THEORY and PRACTICE of BANKING. By the same Author. 
Second Edition, entirely remodelled. 2 vols. 8yo. 30s. 

ELEMENTS of MARITIME INTERNATIONAL LAW. By William 
De Buegh, B.A. of the Inner Temple, Barrister-at-Law. 8vo. 10s. Qd. 

PAPERS on MARITIME LEGISLATION ; with a Translation of the 
German Mercantile Law relating to Maritime Commerce. By Ernst Emil 
Wexdt. 8vo. 10s. Qd. 

PRACTICAL GUIDE for BRITISH SHIPMASTERS to UNITED 

States Ports. By Piebrepont Edwards. Post 8vo. 8s. Qd. 

A NAUTICAL DICTIONARY, denning the Technical Language re- 
lative to the Building and Equipment of Sailing Vessels and Steamers, &c. 
By Arthur Young. Second Edition ; with Plates and 150 Woodcuts. 
8vo. 18s. 

A DICTIONARY, Practical, Theoretical, and Historical, of Com- 
merce and Commercial Navigation. By J. R. M'Culloch, Esq. New and 

thoroughly revised Edition, in the press. 

A MANUAL for NAVAL CADETS. By J. M'Neil Boyd, late Cap- 
tain R.N. Third Edition; with 240 "Woodcuts and 11 coloured Plates. 
Post 8vo. 12s. Qd. 

The LAW of NATIONS Considered as Independent Political Com- 
munities. By Trayees Twiss, D.C.L. Regius Professor of Civil Law in the 
University of Oxford. 2 vols. 8vo. 30s. or separately, Part I. Peace, 12s. 
Part II. War, 18s. 



Works of Utility and General Information. 

MODERN COOKERY for PRIVATE FAMILIES, reduced to a System 
of Easy Practice in a Series of carefully-tested Receipts. By Eliza Acton. 
Newly revised and enlarged Edition: with 8 Plates of 'Figures and 150 
Woodcuts. Fcp. 6s. 

On FOOD and its DIGESTION ; an Introduction to Dietetics. By 
W. Brixton, M.D. With 48 Woodcuts. Post 8vo. 12s. 



NEW WORKS published by LONGMANS and CO. 



WINE, the VINE, and the CELLAR. By Thomas G. Shaw. Se- 
cond Edition, revised and enlarged, with 32 Illustrations. 8vo. 16s. 

HOW TO BREW GOOD BEER: a complete Guide to the Art of 

Brewing Ale, Bitter Ale, Table Ale, Brown Stout, Porter, and Table Beer. 
By John Pitt. Revised Edition. Pep. 4s. Qd. 

A PRACTICAL TREATISE on BREWING ; with Formulae for Public 
Brewers, and Instructions for Private Families. By W. Black. 8vo. 105. Qd. 

SHORT WHIST. By Major A. Sixteenth Edition, revised, with an 
Essay on the Theory of the Modern Scientific Game by Prof. P. Pep. 3s. Qd. 

WHIST, WHAT TO LEAD. By Cam. Fourth Edition. 32mo. Is. 

A HANDBOOK for READERS at the BRITISH MUSEUM. By 

Thomas Nichols. Post 8vo. 6s. 

The EXECUTOR'S GUIDE. By J. C. Hodson. Enlarged Edition, 
revised by the Author, with reference to the latest reported Cases and 
Acts of Parliament. Ecp. 6s. 

The CABINET LAWYER ; a Popular Digest of the Laws of England, 
Civil, Criminal, and Constitutional. Twenty-third Edition, brought down 
to the close of the Parliamentary Session of 1887. Pep. 10s. Qd. 

The PHILOSOPHY of HEALTH ; or, an Exposition of the Physio- 
logical and Sanitary Conditions conducive to Human Longevity and 
Happiness. By Southwood Smith, M.D. Eleventh Edition, revised and 
enlarged ; with 113 Woodcuts. 8vo. 7s. Qd. 

HINTS to MOTHERS on the MANAGEMENT of their HEALTH 

during the Period of Pregnancy and in the Lying-in Room. By T.Bull, 
M.D. Pep. 5s. 

The Maternal Management of Children in Health and Bisease. By 
the same Author. Pep. 5s. 

The LAW RELATING to BENEFIT BUILDING SOCIETIES; with 

Practical Observations on the Act and all the Cases decided thereon ; also a 
Porin of Rules and Forms of Mortgages. By W. Tidd Pratt, Barrister. 
Second Edition. Pep. 3s. Qd. 

NOTES on HOSPITALS. By Florence Nightingale. Third Edi- 
tion, enlarged ; with 13 Plans. Post 4to. 18s. 

COULTH ART'S DECIMAL IITTEREST TABLES at 24 Different Rates 
not exceeding 5 per Cent. Calculated for the use of Hankers. To which are 
added Commission Tables at One-Eighth and One- Fourth per Cent. 8vo. 
price 15s. 

MAUNDER' S TREASURY of KNOWLEDGE and LIBRARY of 

Reference: comprising an English Dictionary and Grammar, Universal 
Gazetteer, Classical Dictionary, Chronology, Law Dictionary, a Synopsis 
of the Peerage, useful Tables, &c. Revised Edition. Pep. 10s. Qd. 



INDEX. 



Acton's Modern Cookery 27 

Alcoce's Residence in Japan 22 

ALi-iKson Formation of Christendom 20 

Alpine Guide (The) 23 

Alvenslebev's Maximilian in Mexico .... 5 

Apjohn's Manual of the Metalloids 12 

Arnold's Manual of English Literature.... 7 

Arnott's Elements of Physics 11 

Arundines Cami 25 

Autumn holidays of a Country Parson .. 8 

Ayre's Treasury of Bible Knowledge. 19 

Bacon's Essays, by "Whately 5 

Life and Letters, by Speddino ...... 5 

Works 6 

Bain on the Emotions and Will 9 

on the Senses and Intellect 9 

on the Study of Character 9 

Ball's Alpine Guide 22 

Barnard's Drawinr from Nature 16 

Bayldon's Rents and Tillages 18 

Beaten Tracks 22 

Becker's Charicles and Gallus 23 

Beethoven's Letters 4 

Ben pet's Sanskrit Dictionary 8 

Berry's Journals and Correspondence .... 4 

Billiard Book (The) 26 

Black's Treatise on Brewing 25 

Blackiey and Friedlander's German and 

English Dictionary 8 

Blaine's Rural Sports 25 

— Veterinary Art 26 

Blight's Week at the Land's End 23 

Booth's Epigrams 9 

Bocr>e on Screw Propeller 17 

Bourne's Catechism of the Steam Engine.. 17 

Handbook of Steam Enarine 17 

Treatise on the Steam Engine ... 17 

Examples of Steam. Air, and Gas 

Engines 17 

Bowdlf.r's Family Sharspfare 2o 

Boyd's Manual for Naval Cadets 27 

Brajiuy-Moore's Six Sisters of the Valleys 23 
Brande's Dictionary of Science, Literature, 

andArt 13 

Bray's (C.) Education of the Feelings 10 

, Philosophy of Necessity 10 

on Force .... 10 

Brt.nton on Food and Digestion 27 

Bktstow's Glossary of Mineralogy 11 

BRODi E 's(SirC. B.) Works 15 

Constitutional History 2 

Browne's Exposition b9 Articles 18 

Bccklf's History of Civilization 2 

■ Bull's Hints to Mothers 28 

Maternal Management of Children. 28 

B onsen's (Baron ^ Ancient Egypt 3 



Bcnsen's (Baron) God in History 3 

Memoirs * 

Bcnsen (E.De) on Apocnpha 20 

*s Keys of St. Peter 20 

Burke's Vicissitude? of Families 5 

Burton's Christian Church 3 

Cabinet Lawyer 28 

Calvert's Wife's Manual 21 

Cates's Biographical Dictionary 4 

Cats' and Farlie's Moral Emblems 16 

Che*nf.y's Indian Polity 23 

Chorale Book for England 16 

Christian Schools and Scholars 10- 

Clough's Lives from Plutarch 2 

Colenso (Bishop) on Pentateuch and Book 

of Joshua 19 

Collins's Horse-Trainer's Guide 26 

Commonplace Philosopher in Town and 

Country 8 

Conington's Chemical Analysis 14 

-Translation of Virgil's j£neid 25 

Contanseac's Pocket French and English 

Dictionary 8 

Practical ditto 8 

CoNYBEAREand Howson's Life and Epistles 

of St. Paul 18 

Cook on the Acts 18 

Copland's Dictionary of Practical Medicine 15 

Coclthart's Decimal Interest Tables 28 

Counsel and Comfort from a City Pulpit . . 8 

Cox's Manual of Mythology 24 

Tales of the Great Persian War 2 

Tales from Greek Mythology 24 

Tales of the Gods and Heroes 24 

Tales of Thebes and Argos 24 

Tales from Ancient Greece 24 

Crest's Encyclopaedia of Civil Engineering 17 

Critical Es>ays of a Country Parson 8 

Crowe's History of France 2 

Crump on Banking, Currency, & Exchanges 27 

Dart's Iliad of Homer 25 

D'Aubigne's History of the Reformation in 

the time of Calvin 2 

Davidson's Introduction to New Testament 19 

Dayman's Dante's Divina Commedia 25 

Dead Shot (The), by Mar ssman 26 

De Burgh's Maritime International Law. . 27 

De la Rive's Treatise on Electricity 11 

De Morgan on Matter and Spirit 9 

De Tocqceville's Democracy in America.. 2 
Disraeli's Speeches on Parliamentary Re- 
form 6 

Dobson on the Ox 27 

Dove on Storms 10 

Dyer's City of Rome 2 



30 



NEW WORKS published by LONGMANS and CO. 



E astl a re's Hints on Household Taste .... 17 

Edwards' Shipmaster's Guide 27 

Elements of Botany 13 

Ellicott's Commentary on Ephesians .... 19 

■ Lectures on Life of Christ 19 

■ Commentary on Galatians 19 

. Pastoral Epist... 19 

; Philippians, &c.. 19 

. Thessalonians... 19 

Enoel's Introduction to National Music .. 15 

Essays and Reviews 20 

on Relieion and Literature, edited 

by Manning, First and Second Series.. 20 

Ewald's History of Israel 19 

Fairbairn on Iron Shipbuilding 17 

Fairbairn's Application of Cast and 

Wrought Iron to Building: 17 

Information for Engineers... 17 

Treatise on Mills & Millwork 17 

Farrar's Chapters on Language 7 

Felkin on Hosiery and Lace Manufactures 18 

Ffoulkes'o Christendom's Divisions 5:0 

Fliedner's (Pastor) Life 5 

Francis's Fishing Book 26 

(Sir P.) Memoir and Journal .... 4 

Friends in Council 9 

Froude's History of England 1 

Short Studies on Great Subjects 8 



Ganot's Elementary Physics 11 

Gilbert and Churchill's Dolomite Moun- 
tains 22 

Gill's Papal Drama 3 

Gilly's Shipwrecks of the Navy 22 

Guodeve's Elements of Mechanism 17 

Gorle's Questions on Browne's Exposition 

of the 39 Articles 18 

Gould's Silver Store 10 

Grant's Ethics of Aristotle 6 

Graver Thoughts of a Country Parson .... 8 

Gray's Anatomy 14 

Greene's Corals and Sea Jellies 12 

Sponges and Animalculae 12 

Grove on Correlation of Physical Forces.. 11 

Gwilt's Encyclopaedia of Architecture .... 16 



Handbook of Angling, by Ephemera 26 

Hare on Election of Representatives 6 

Harley and Bkown's Histological Demon- 
strations 15 

Hartwig's Harmonies of Nature 12 

- Polar World 12 

Sea and its Living Wonders.... 12 

Tropical World 12 

Haughton's Manual of Geology 11 

Hawker's Instructions to Youug Sportsmen 26 

Hearn's Plutology 1 

on English Government 1 

Helps's Spanish Conquest in America 2 

Hendeh=on's Folk-Lore of the Northern 

Counties 10 

Herschel's Outlines of Astronomy ........ 10 

Hewitt en Diseases of Women 14 

Hodgson's Time and Space 9 

Holmes's System of Surgery 14 

Surgical Diseases of Infancy 14 

Hooker and Walkeh-Arnott's British 

Flora.... 13 

Hopkins's Hawaii ll 

Horne's Introduction to the Scriptures .... 19 
Compendium of ditto 19 



Horsley's Manual of Poisons 15 

Hoskyns's Occasional Essays 

How we Spent the Summer 

Howard's Gymnastic Exercises 15 

Howitt's Australian Discovery 22 

Rural Life of England. 23 

Visits to Remarkable Places 

Hudson's Executor's Guide 

Hughes's (W.) Manual of Geography 

Hullah's Collection of Sacred Music 16 

Lectures on Modem Music 15 

Transition Musical Lectures .... 15 

Humphreys' Sentiments of Shakspeare .... 16 

Hutton's Studies in Parliament 8 

i 

Ingelow's Poems 25 

Story ofDoom 25 

Jameson's Legends of the Saints and Mar- 
tyrs 16 

Legends of the Madonna 16 

— . Legends of the Monastic Orders 16 

Jameson and Eastlake's History of Our 

Lord 16 

Jenner's Holy Child ; 25 

Johnston's Gazetteer, or Geographical Dic- 
tionary '. , 10 

Jordan's Vis Inertiag in the Ocean K 

Kalisch's Commentary on the Bible 7 

Hebrew Grammar 7 

Keith on Fulfilment of Prophecy 18 

Destiny of the World 18 

Ke ler's Lake Dwellings of Switzerland.. 12 

Kesteven's Domestic Medicine 15 

Kirby and Spence's Entomology 13 

Knight's Arch of Titus 

Lady's Tour Round Monte Rosa 

Landon's(L. E L.) Poetical Works 25 

Latham's English Dictionary 7 

River Plate 10 

Lawrenc on Rocks 11 

Leckv's History of Rationalism 3 

Leigh's Homeward Ride 25 

Le sure Hours in Town 

Lessons of Middle Age 

Lewes' History of Philosophy 

Letters of Distinguished Musicians 

Liddell and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon 7 

Abridged ditto 7 

Life of Man Symbolised 16 

Lindley and Moore's Treasury of Botany 13 
Longman's Lectures on the History of Eng- 
land 2 

Loudon's Agriculture 18 

Cottasre. Farm,Villa Architecture 18 

Gardening 18 

Plants 13 

Trees and Shrubs 13 

Lowndes's Engineer's Handbook 17 

Lyra Domestica 21 

Eucharistica , 21 

Germanica 16, 21 

Messianica 21 

Mystica 21 

Sacra 21 

Macaulay's (Lord) Essays 3 

History of England 

Lays of Ancient Rome . 24 

Miscellaneous Writings 

Speeches 6 



NEW WORKS published by LONGMANS and CO. 



Macaolay's (Lord) "Works .1 

Macfarren's Lectures on Harmony 15 

MacLeod's Elements of Political Economy 6 

Dictionary cf Political Economy 6 

Elements of Bankin r 27 

Theory and Practice of Banking 27 

McCulloch's Dictionary of Commerce 27 

Geographical Dictionary 10 

Maguire's Irish in America 23 

Life of Father Mathew 4 

Rome and its Rulers 4 

Malleson's French in India 3 

Manmno on Holy Ghost 20 

's England and Christendom 20 

Marshall's Physiology 14 

Marshm an 's Life of Havelock 5 

History or India 3 

Martineau's Endeavours after the Chris- 
tian Life 21 

Massey's History of England 2 

(G.) ou Shakspeare's Sonnets 25 

Massfngberd's History of the Reformation. . 4 

Maunder 's Biographical Treasury 5 

Geographical Treasury 11 

Historical Treasury 3 

Scientific and Literary Treasury 13 

Treasury of Knowledge 28 

Treasury of Natural History .. 13 

Maury's Physical Geography 10 

May's Constitutional History of England. . 2 

Melville's Digby Grand 24 

General Bounce 24 

Gladiators 24 

Good for Nothing 24 

Holmby House 24 

Interpreter 24 

KateCoventry 24 

Queen's Maries 24 

Mendelssohn's Letters 4 

Merivale's (HJ Historical Studies 2 

(C.) Fall of the Roman Republic 3 

Romans under the Empire 3 

Miles on Horse's Foot and Horseshoeing... 26 

on Horses' Teeth and Stables 26 

Mill on Liberty 6 

— on Representative Government 6 

— on Utilitarianism 6' 

Mill's Dissertations and Discussions 6 

— Political Kconomy 6 

— System of Logic 6 

— Hamilton's Philosophy 6 , 

— St. Andrews' Inaugural Address .. 6 

Miller's Elements of Chemistry 14 

Mitchell's Manual of Assaying 18 

Monsell's Beatitudes 21 

His Presence— not his Memory. . 21 

* Spiritual Songs ' 21 

Montgomery on Pregnancy 14 

Moore's Irish Melodies 24 

Lalla Rookh 24 

Poetical Works 24 

(Dr. G.)FirstMan 12 

Morell's Elements of Psychology 9 

Mental Philosophy 9 

Mosheim's Ecclesiastical History 21 

Mozart's Letters 4 

Mdller's (Max) Chips from a German 

Workshop 9 

. Lectures on the Science of 

Language 7 

(K. CO Literature of Ancient 

Greece 2 

VTurchtson on Continued Fevers 14 

Mure's Language and Literature of Greece 2 



Sew Testament, illustrated with "Wood En- 
gravings from the Old Masters 16 

Newman's History of his Religious Opinions 4 



Nicholas's Pedigree of th*e English People 9 

Nichols' Handbook to the British Museum 28 

Ntohtingale's Notes on Hospitals 28 

Nilsson's Scandinavia 12 

Odling's Animal Chemistry 14 

Course of Practical Chemistry .... 14 

Manual of Chemistry 14 

Original Designs for Wood Carving 17 

Owen's Lectures on the Invertebrate Ani- 
mals 12 

Comparative Anatomy and Physio- 
logy of Vertebrate Animals 12 

Oxenham on Atonement. 20 

P ac re's Guide to the Pyrenees 22 

Paget's Lectures on Surgical Pathology '.. 14 

Pkreira's Manual of Materia Medica 22 

Perkins's Tuscan Sculptors 17 

Phillips's Guide to Geology 11 

Pictures in Tyrol , 22 

Piesse's Art of Perfumery .• 18 

Chemical, Natural, and Physical 

Magic 18 

Pike's English and their Origin 9 

Pitt on Brewing 28 

Playtime with the Poets 25 

Plowden's Travels in Abyssinia 22 

Pratt's Law of Building Societies 28 

Prescott's Scripture Difficulties 19 

Proctor's Saturn 10 

Handbook of the Stars 10 

Pycroft's Course of English Reading 7 

CricketField 26 

Raikes's Englishman in India 23 

Reade's Poetical Works 25 

Recreations of a Country Parson 8 

Reily's Map of M ont Blanc 22 

Reimann on Aniline 15 

Reynolds's Alice Rushton 25 

Rivers's Rose Amateur's Guide 13 

Rogers's Correspondence of Greyson 9 

Eclipse of Faith 9 

Defence of ditto 9 

E ssays from the Edinburgh Review 9 

Reason and Faith 9 

Roget's Thesaurus of English Words and 

Phrases 7 

Ronajlds's Fly-Fisher's Entomology 26 

Rowton's Debater 7 

Rudd's Aristophanes 25 

Russell on Government and Constitution. . 1 

Sandars's Justinian's Institutes 5 

Schubert's Life, translated by Coleridge. . 5 

Scott's Lectures on the Fine Arts 15 

Seebohm's Oxford Reformers of 1498 2 

Sewell's After Life 23 

A my H erbert fc3 

Cleve Hall 23 

Earl 's Daughter 23 

■ Examination for Confirmation ... 20 

Experience of Life 23 

Gertrude 23 

Glimpse of the World 23 

. — History of the Early Church 3 

Ivors 23 

Journal of a Home Life 23 

Katharine Ashton S3 

Laneton Parsonage 23 

Margaret Percival 23 

Passing Thoughts on Religion.... 20 

Preparation for Communion 20 



X13 



NEW WORKS published by LONGMANS and CO. 



Sewell's Principles of Education 20 

Readings for Confirmation 20 

Readings for Lent 20 

Tales and Stories 23 

Ursula 23 

Shaw's Work on Wine 28 

Shepherd's Iceland £1 

Shipley's Church, and the World 19 

TractsfortheDay 20 

Short Whist 28 

Short's Church History 3 

Smith's (Southwood) Philosophy of Health 28 

(J.) Paul's Voyage and Shipwreck. . 18 

(G.) King David 19 

Wesleyan Methodism .... 4 

(Sydney) Miscellaneous Works .... 8 

Moral Philosophy 8 

Wit and Wisdom 9 

Smith on Cavalry Drill and Manoeuvres .... 26 

Southey's (Doctor) 7 

Poetical Works 24 

Springdale Abbey 23 

Stanley's History of British Birds 12 

Stebbing's Analysis of Mill's Logic 6 

Stephen's Essays in Ecclesiastical Bio- 
graphy 5 

Lectures on History of France . . 2 

Stirling's Secret of Hegel 9 

Stonehenge on the Dog 26 

on the Greyhound 27 

Story of Mairwara 23 

Sunday Afternoons at the Parish Church of 

a Scottish University City (Aberdeen) .... 8 



Taylor's (Jeremy) Works, edited by Eden 21 
(E.) Selections from some Contem- 
porary Poets 25 

Tennent's Ceylon 13 

Wild Elephant 13 

Thirlw all's History of Greece 2 

Thomson's (Archbishop) Laws of Thought 6 

■ (A. T.) Conspectus 15 

Timbs's Curiosities of London 23 

Todd (A.) on Parliamentary Government.. 1 
Todd and Bowbian's Anatomy and Phy- 
siology of Man .'. . 15 

Trollope's Barchester Towers 23 

Warden 23 

Twiss'sLawof Nations 27 



Tyndall's Lectures on Heat..... , 

• r.< Sound „ 

Memoir of Faraday 



Ure's Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures 
and Mines 



Van Der Hoeven's Handbook of Zoology. 
Vaughan's (K.) Revolutions in English 

History 

Way toRest 

Walker on the Rifle 

Ward's Workmen and Wages 

Watson's Principles and Practice of Physi\ 

Watts's Dictionary of Chemistry 

Webb's Objects for Common Telescopes... 
Webster & Wilkinson's Greek Testamen j 

Weld's Florence 

Wellington's Life, by the Rev G. R. 

Gleio 

Wells on Dew 

Wfndt's Papers on Maritime Law 

West on Children's Diseases 

Whately's English Synony mes 

Logic 

Rhetoric 

Life and Correspondence 

Whately on the Truth of Christianity.... 

Religious Worship 

Whist, what to lead, by Cam 

White and Riddle's Latin-English Die 

tionaries 

Wikslow on Light , ;' 

Wood's Bible Animals \ 

Homes without Hands 3 

Wright's Homer's Iliad | 

Yongb's English-Greek Lexicon 

Ahridged ditto 

Horace 

Young's Nautical Dictionary , 

Iodatt on the Dog 

. on the Horse ». 



LONDON: PRINTED EY 

SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUASH 

AND PARLIAMENT STREET 



Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. 
Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide 
Treatment Date: Oct. 2006 

PreservationTechnologies 

A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATION 
1 1 1 Thomson Park Drive 
Cranberry Township, PA 16066 
(724)779-2111 



